1. Motivational Considerations in the Design of Instruction Anthony R. Artino, Jr. Department of Educational Psychology Blue Sky State University EPSY 350: Instructional Design Applying Theories of Motivation to Improve Learning & Performance

2. EPSY 350 2 Are You Motivated? Retrieved February 2, 2007, from www.cartoonbank.com

3. EPSY 350 3 Where We’ve Been… Analyze Learners Analyze Context Analyze Task Goals/ Objectives Systematic Design of Instruction Design Instructional Strategies For Various Learning Outcomes Consider Motivation in the Design of Strategies Theories of Learning Constructivist Perspectives Theories of Motivation Keller’s ARCS Model links motivation theory to ID Expectancy-Value Models Social Cognitive Theory Attribution Theory Goal Orientation Theory Self-Determination & Intrinsic Motivation Interest & Affect …and Where We’re Going

4. EPSY 350 4 Overview What is Motivation? Why Should We Care? –Motivational Influences on Learning & Performance Theories of Motivation –Review of Contemporary Theories –Instructional Implications Systematic Motivational Design –Keller’s ARCS Model

5. EPSY 350 5 Motivation Defined How would you define motivation? What is it? Derived from Latin verb movere (to move) There are many definitions (product & process)… –“what moved a resting organism to a state of activity” (Weiner, 1990, p. 617) –“a willingness, desire, or condition of arousal or activation” (Anderman & Wolters, 2006, p. 369) –“the process whereby goal-directed activity is instigated and sustained” (Pintrich & Schunk, 2002, p. 5) –“an internal state that arouses, directs, and maintains behavior” (Woofolk, 2007, p. 372)

6. EPSY 350 6 …But There is Disagreement It depends on your theoretical perspective –Drive Theory Internal forces act to maintain homeostasis –Behavioral Theories Reinforcements sustain or increase behaviors –Humanistic Theories Individuals have choices and seek control over their lives –Cognitive & Social Cognitive Theories Students’ cognition (mental structures and processing of information) guide their motivation Emphasis on students’ thoughts, beliefs, and emotions (Pintrich & Schunk, 2002)

7. EPSY 350 7 How Do We Know When Someone Is Motivated? We infer it from behavioral indicators… –Choice of Tasks –Latency How long it takes before an individual initiates activity –Effort How hard a person works at the activity –Persistence How long the individual is willing to work at the activity –Achievement Students who engage in a task, expend effort, and persist are likely to achieve at a higher level (Graham & Weiner, 1996; Pintrich & Schunk, 2002) Image retrieved February 3, 2007, from http://www.bibliotheques.uqam.ca/InfoSphere/images/motivation.jpg

8. EPSY 350 8 Why Should We Care? How is Motivation Related to Learning? “Motivation can influence what, when, and how we learn” (Pintrich & Schunk, 2002, p. 6) Students who are motivated… –Attend more carefully to instruction –Mentally organize, rehearse, & elaborate info to be learned –Check their level of understanding –Ask for help when they don’t understand Taken together, these activities improve learning and performance! Motivation Learning & Performance Mediating Cognitive & Behavioral Activities …and the relationship is reciprocal

9. EPSY 350 9 Contemporary Theories of Motivation & Their Implications for Instruction Retrieved February 2, 2007, from www.cartoonbank.com Expectancy-Value Models Social Cognitive Theory Attribution Theory Goal Orientation Theory Self-Determination & Intrinsic Motivation Interest & Affect Our Focus Today

10. EPSY 350 10 Instructional Vignette Mary: I’m really enjoying this course. It’s very interesting, and I think it will be very useful for me in my future career. I hope to be a doctor someday! Jim:Really? I think it’s extremely boring. Besides, I’m not really getting all the concepts, and I don’t think I’m going to do very well on the test. I prefer history class to this stuff. Mary: Well, I’m not very good in history. It’s just not that important to me. I’ll stick with math and science. (Adapted from Pintrich & Schunk, 2002) What kinds of things are these students discussing? How do they relate to motivation?

11. EPSY 350 11 Expectancy-Value Models Theory Overview Achievement Behaviors Students’ choice behaviors, cognitive engagement, persistence, and performance Expectancy “Am I able to do well in this task?” Task Value “Why should I do this task?” Interest “I’m interested in this topic” Utility Value “This topic is useful for me” Importance “This topic is important to me” Cost “If I do this I cannot do that” + ++ - X= (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002)

12. EPSY 350 12 Expectancy-Value Models Instructional Implications Expectancy Help students maintain accurate but high expectations for success –Use examples of students’ past success –Use peer models Build students’ confidence –Provide opportunities for success (mastery experiences) –Give accurate feedback –Emphasize that competence is changeable and controllable Task Value Make value explicit –Embed tasks in real-world (maybe even controversial) issues –Discuss importance and utility value as it relates to these issues Model personal interest and value Activate interest –Provide opportunities for choice and control w/in instruction (Bransford et al., 2000; Pintrich & Schunk, 2002)

13. EPSY 350 13 Social Cognitive Theory Overview Key Theoretical Components Self-Efficacy –“beliefs in one’s capability to organize and execute the courses of action required to produce given attainments” (Bandura, 1997, p. 3) –Developed through… Mastery experiences Vicarious experiences Verbal persuasion Physiological states Social Modeling Self-Regulated Learning Person (cognition, affect, motivational beliefs, & biological events) Environment (physical & socio-cultural) Behavior reciprocal causation “Behavior is a product of both self-generated and external sources of influence” (Bandura, 1986, p. 454)

14. EPSY 350 14 Social Cognitive Theory Instructional Implications Build self-efficacy –Provide opportunities for enactive mastery experiences –Employ successful models (see next slide) –Give positive, yet realistic feedback Overly optimistic feedback tends to be ineffective –Embed realistic, challenging, proximal goals into instruction

15. EPSY 350 15 Social Cognitive Theory Instructional Implications con’t Use social modeling –Competent, credible, enthusiastic, and similar models –Model personal interest and value (instructor enthusiasm) Develop self-regulated learning skills –Explicit instructional prompts for… Rehearsal, organization, and elaboration –Provide chances for self-appraisal and reflection –Model metacognition Make visible the instructor’s thinking processes (Driscoll, 2005)

16. EPSY 350 16 Instructional Vignette Roy is an average student, but algebra isn’t his best subject. Sam is one of the best students and usually gets A’s and occasionally B’s on his algebra assignments. The teacher returns a recent assignment to both students. Roy didn’t do too well, and as he looks it over it he thinks, “What did I do wrong here? I just don’t get this stuff. It seems so abstract and it’s hard to see how it relates to anything meaningful. I just can’t do this, it’s too hard for me. I think I’m just not cut out for math.” Sam also had problems on the homework. As he reviews it, he thinks, “I don’t understand this, so I’ll have to ask the teacher about this problem. Maybe I’m just not studying hard enough. I’ll have to go back to my notes and review this again.” He increases the amount of time he spends studying for algebra. (Adapted from Pintrich & Schunk, 2002) What kinds of things are these students discussing? How do they relate to motivation?

17. EPSY 350 17 Attribution Theory Overview –Health on day of exam –Mood ControllableUncontrollable InternalExternal Unstable Stable ControllableUncontrollable Stability Locus –Skills/knowledge –Temporary or situational effort on exam –Aptitude–Long-term effort –Help from friends/ instructor –Instructor bias/ favoritism –Chance –Ease/difficulty of school or course requirements Achievement attributions classified by… Locus (internal/external to the person) Stability (relatively stable/unstable over time) Controllability (controllable/uncontrollable by the person) (Adapted from Weiner, 1986, as cited in Pintrich & Schunk, 2002)

18. EPSY 350 18 Attribution Theory Instructional Implications Provide accurate feedback –Deemphasize ability The “I’m just not smart” attitude –An emphasis on effort after student failures usually leads to more adaptive attributes Effort is unstable, internal, and controllable (Schunk & Zimmerman, 2006) –If effort was high, emphasize lack of skills/ knowledge Unstable factors Can be learned with effort

19. EPSY 350 19 Goal Orientation Theory Overview Explicitly developed to explain achievement behavior –Why do students engage in achievement behaviors and how they approach academic tasks? Mastery Orientation Performance Orientation Approach Avoid –Focus on mastering task, learning, understanding –Use of standards of self- improvement, progress, deep understanding –Focus on avoiding misunderstanding –Use of standards of not being wrong, not doing it incorrectly –Focus on avoiding inferiority, not looking stupid or dumb in comparison to others –Use of normative standards of not being lowest performer –Focus on being superior, besting others, being the smartest –Use of normative standards such as getting the highest grade, being top performer (Adapted from Pintrich & Schunk, 2002)

20. EPSY 350 20 Goal Orientation Instructional Implications Create positive goal structures –Emphasize mastery (learning and understanding), not performance Students apt to adopt mastery-orientation (Anderman & Wolters, 2006) –Ensure assessment is private, not public Minimizes social comparisons Image retrieved February 3, 2007, from http://www.corporate-star.com/images/classroom.jpg

21. EPSY 350 21 Self-Determination & Intrinsic Motivation Theory Overview Integrates “needs” with social-cognitive constructs (Pintrich, 2003) Self-determination is… –“using one’s capability to choose how to satisfy one’s needs” (Schunk & Zimmerman, 2006, p. 359) Intrinsic motivation increases when learners are self-determined

22. EPSY 350 22 Three Basic Innate Psychological Needs Self-Determination & Intrinsic Motivation Theory Overview Self-Determined Learner Competence The need to feel competent in interactions with others, tasks and activities, and larger contexts Autonomy The need to feel a sense of control, agency, or autonomy in interactions with environment Relatedness The need to belong to a group (affiliation) Intrinsic MotivationExtrinsic Motivation + motivation continuum Unmotivated motivation continuum Learning & Performance + +

23. EPSY 350 23 Self-Determination & Intrinsic Motivation Instructional Implications Avoid external rewards for intrinsically motivated students –Can undermined intrinsic motivation Enhance intrinsic motivation –Challenge students Intermediate difficulty activities –Prompt curiosity Present slightly discrepant ideas –Provide learner control and choice –Engage students in fantasy, games, simulations Image retrieved February 3, 2007, from http://academic.reed.edu/motivation/images/pics/kids1.jpg

24. EPSY 350 24 Instructional Vignette John: I’m really fed up. None of my students have any interest in the training. They just don’t care. Some of them even seem angry that they have to be here. I overheard one student yesterday talking about his frustration with the whole training program. Teri:Well, I don’t know. I do have some students who at least are interested in the training. When I hear them talk in class, some of them seem to like it. Tony: Yeah, my guys seem relatively interested too, but the problem I have is that some of them just get so wound up about the exams that they bomb the test. You can just see them getting nervous before the test, and during it you can seem them wriggling around. I’m just not sure what to do. (Adapted from Pintrich & Schunk, 2002) What kinds of things are these instructors discussing? How do they relate to motivation?

25. EPSY 350 25 Interest & Affect Overview Interest Three Types –Characteristic of Person Personal –Characteristic of Context Situational –Psychological State Personal x Situational Positively Influences… –Choice, persistence, effort –Attention –Use of deep processing –Performance Affect Moods & Emotions Academic Emotions –Positive Enjoyment, hope, pride –Negative Test anxiety, frustration, boredom Positively/Negatively Influence… –All the same processes (Pekrun, Goetz, Titz, & Perry, 2002)(Krapp, Hidi, & Renninger, 1992)

26. EPSY 350 26 Interest & Affect Instructional Implications Image retrieved February 3, 2007, from http://www.themindeye.com/images/themindeye-main-image.jpg Interest –Use original source material with authentic content –Model enthusiasm and interest –Use variety, novelty, surprise –Provide some choice based on personal interest –Build/integrate students’ personal interests into lessons

27. EPSY 350 27 Interest & Affect Instructional Implications Image retrieved February 3, 2007, from http://pbskids.org/itsmylife/images/cheating6.jpg Affect –Provide plenty of time for assessments –Order test items from easy to difficult –Minimize social comparisons –Emphasize mastery (learning and understanding), not performance –Make course value/relevance explicit

28. EPSY 350 28 Recurring Themes Instructional Implications >> Instructional Strategies << Opportunities for ChoiceAccurate Feedback Learner Control**Realistic, Proximal Goals Variety, Novelty, CuriosityPrivate Assessment Intermediate Difficulty TasksAuthentic Tasks Peer/Instructor ModelingEmphasize Learning/Mastery Minimize Social ComparisonsInstructor Interest/Enthusiasm Prompt Self-RegulationExplain Value/Relevance **Note: Research in multimedia and hypermedia learning environments has revealed that too much learner control can hinder learning and performance, particularly for low ability learners and/or novices who lack domain knowledge (Clark & Feldon, 2005; Lawless & Brown, 1997).

29. EPSY 350 29 Systematic Motivational Design Keller’s ARCS Model A systematic, step-by-step approach to designing motivational tactics into instruction Integrates well with traditional ID/ISD processes ARCS steps include… 1.Analyze the Audience 2.Define Motivational Objectives 3.Design a Motivational Strategy 4.Implement and Revise Image retrieved February 3, 2007, from http://edweb.sdsu.edu/Courses/EDTEC700/ETP/images/addie.jpg Traditional ID/ISD Processes (ADDIE Model)

30. EPSY 350 30 Systematic Motivational Design Keller’s ARCS Model Based on four dimensions of motivation (Keller, 1999): A Attention Capturing the interest of learners Stimulating the curiosity of learners Sound familiar? R Relevance Meeting the personal needs/goals of learners to effect a positive attitude Sound familiar? C Confidence Helping learners believe/feel that they will succeed and they control their success Sound familiar? S Satisfaction Reinforcing accomplishments with rewards (internal and external)

31. EPSY 350 31 Systematic Motivational Design In-Class Activity Using Keller’s ARCS Model Case 1: A course in educational psychology is required of all persons seeking teacher certification in the state. Most of the students are juniors and seniors in the University’s teacher preparation program. A few come from programs outside of education, and a few have already taken and failed the teacher certification test. The course will be delivered as a traditional, face-to-face class and will also use WebCT for online discussions and debates. Case 2:A literacy course is offered to farmers in an underdeveloped nation. The course is run in the evening and is populated by both men and women from the ages of 15 to 61. None of the students can read. (Adapted from Driscoll, 2005) Using the table on the next slide, conduct an abbreviated motivational analysis. Determine the motivational issues and design some tactics to address them.

32. EPSY 350 32 Systematic Motivational Design Motivational Analysis Matrix Design Factors ARCS Categories AttentionRelevanceConfidenceSatisfaction Learner Characteristics Learning Task (Learners’ Attitude Toward) Media/Technology (Learners’ Attitude Toward) Motivational Tactics for the Course (Adapted from Keller, 1999, p. 41)

33. EPSY 350 33 Systematic Motivational Design Motivational Analysis Matrix Design Factors ARCS Categories AttentionRelevanceConfidenceSatisfaction Learner Characteristics Course elective, high interest (+) Highly relevant (+) Low skills in typing and in English (-) Newly formed group of students (-) but familiar teacher (+) Learning Task (Learners’ Attitude Toward) New, attractive, adventurous (+) Useful in future (+), limited access to computer (-) Seems difficult (-), first exposure (-) High applicability of acquired skills (+), exciting outcome (+) Media/Technology (Learners’ Attitude Toward) Interesting, new use as networking tool (+) Familiar as stand- alone learning tool (+) Unstable network may make students worried (-) Immediate feedback (+) Motivational Tactics for the Course Minimal tactics required: Emphasize communication opportunities Minimal tactics required: Demonstrate how it extends one’s communication capabilities Necessary to build confidence: Set objectives cumulatively from low-high, team teaching with assistant English teacher Minimal tactics required: Provide reinforcement by receiving messages from “network pals” (Adapted from Keller, 1999, p. 41) Example of How Cells Are Filled Using ARCS Model (unrelated scenario)

34. EPSY 350 34 Summary What is Motivation? Why Should We Care? –Motivational Influences on Learning & Performance Theories of Motivation –Review of Contemporary Theories –Instructional Implications Systematic Motivational Design –Keller’s ARCS Model

35. EPSY 350 35 References Anderman, E. M., & Wolters, C. A. (2006). Goals, values, and affect: Influences on student motivation. In P. A. Alexander & P. H. Winne (Eds.), Handbook of educational psychology (2nd Ed., pp. 369-389). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: W. H. Freeman and Company. Bransford, J. D, Brown, A. L., & Cocking, R. R. (2000). How people learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Clark, R. E., & Feldon, D. F. (2005). Five common but questionable principles of multimedia learning. In Mayer, R. (Ed.), Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Driscoll, M. P. (2005). Psychology of learning for instruction (3rd ed.). Boston: Pearson Education, Inc. Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002) Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 109-132. Graham, S., & Weiner, B. (1996). Theories and principles of motivation. In D. C. Berliner & R. C. Calfee (Eds.). Handbook of educational psychology (pp. 63-84). New York: Simon & Schuster Macmillan.

36. EPSY 350 36 References Keller, J. M. (1999). Using the ARCS motivational process in computer-based instruction and distance education. New Directions in Teaching and Learning, 78, 39-47. Krapp, A., Hidi, S., & Renninger, K. A. (1992). Interest, learning, and development. In K. A. Renninger, S. Hidi, & A. Krapp (Eds.), The role of interest in learning and development (pp. 3-25). Hillsdale, NH: Erlbaum. Lawless, K. A., & Brown, S. W. (1997). Multimedia learning environments: Issues of learner control and navigation. Instructional Science, 25, 117-131. Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A motivational science perspective on the role of student motivation in learning and teaching contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95, 667-686. Pekrun, R., Goetz, T., Titz, W., & Perry, R. P. (2002). Academic emotions in students’ self- regulated learning and achievement: A program of qualitative and quantitative research. Educational Psychologist, 37, 99-105. Pintrich, P. R., & Schunk, D. H. (2002). Motivation in education (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education. Schunk, D. H., & Zimmerman, B. J. (2006). Competence and control beliefs: Distinguishing the means and ends. In P. A. Alexander & P. H. Winne (Eds.), Handbook of educational psychology (2nd Ed., pp. 349-367). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Weiner, H. (1990). History of motivational research in education. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82, 616-622.