1. Register Tracking Register tracking improves on a simple code generator Uses a simple local register allocation scheme in which the contents of allocatable registers are tracked Allows allocation of frequently accessed variables and temporaries to registers It is not optimal We generate code from tuples n  2 registers must be available for allocation

2. Machine Instructions and Cost Load Storage, Reg-- Cost = 2 Store Storage, Reg-- Cost = 2 OP Storage, Reg-- Reg = Reg OP Storage; Cost = 2 OP Reg1, Reg2-- Reg2 = Reg2 OP Reg1; Cost = 1

3. Status Flags L (live) or D (dead) –A variable or temp that is live will be referenced again in the basic block S (to be saved) or NS (not to be saved) –A variable should always be saved at the end of a basic block if it has not already been stored in memory –Temps are not saved after they become dead

4. Cost of Var/Temp 0 If status is (D,NS) – if the next reference to it is an assignment of a new value 0If status is (D,S) – The variable won’t be used again, but it hasn’t been saved – There is no cost in freeing the register and doing the save immediately 2If status is (L,NS) – A load is needed to restore the it to a register 4If status is (L,S) – A store is needed to save the value, and a load is needed to restore the value to a register

5. Cost Algorithm cost = (U is in a register ? 0 : get_reg_cost() + 2 /* cost to load U into R1? + cost (R1) /* cost of loading U */ + (V is in a register || U == V ? 1 : 2) /* cost of register-to-register */ /* vs storage-to-register */

6. Example Basic Block a = b * c + d * e d = c + (d – b); f = e + a + c; a = d + e;

7. Quadruples 1.(*, b, c, t1)8. (+, e, a, t6) 2.(*, d, e, t2)9. (+, t6, c, t7) 3.(+, t1, t2, t3)10. (=, t7, f) 4.(=, t3, a)11. (+, d, e, t8) 5.(–, d, b, t4)12. (=, t8, a) 6.(+, c, t4, t5) 7.(=, t5, d)

8. Unoptimized Code 1.Load b, r111.Store d, r2 2.Mul c, r112.Load e, r1 3.Load d, r213.Add a, r1 4.Mul e, r214.Add c, r1 5.Add r2, r115.Store f, r1 6.Store a, r116.Load d, r1 7.Load d, r117.Add e, r1 8.Sub b, r118.Store a, r1 9.Add r1, r2 10.Store d, r2

9. Register Tracking – 1 Tuple/Code GeneratedRegisterAssoc r1r2r3r4 (*,b,c,t1) Cost(*,b,c,t1)=2+2+2 Cost(*,c,b,t1)=2+2+2 Load b,r1 Load c,r2 Mul r2, r1 b(L,NS) T1(L,S) C(L,NS) (*,d,e,t2) cost(*,d,e,t2)=2+2+2 cost(*,e,d,t2)=2+2+2 Load d,r3 Load e,r4 Mul r4,r3 t1(L,S) c(L,NS) d(L,NS) t2(L,S) e(L, NS)

10. Register Tracking – 2 Tuple/Code GeneratedRegisterAssoc r1r2r3r4 (+,t1,t2,t3) cost(+,t1,t2,t3)=0+0+1 cost(+,t2,t1,t3)=0+0+1 Add r3,r1 -- (D,NS) can be immediately removed t3(L,S)c(L,NS)t2(D,NS)e(L,NS) (=,t3,a) -- The store is deferred a(L,S)c(L,NS)e(L,NS) (–,d,b,t4) Load d,r3 Sub b,r3 -- B dead after this tuplea(L,S) c(L,NS) d(D,NS) t4(L,S) e(L,NS)

11. Register Tracking - 3 Tuple/Code GeneratedRegisterAssoc r1r2r3r4 (+,c,t4,t5) cost(+,c,t4,t5)=0+2+1 cost(+,t4,c,t50=0+0+1 Add r2,r3a(L,S)c(L,NS)t5(L,S)e(L,NS) (=,t5,d) -- The store is deferred a(L,S)c(L,NS)d(L,S)e(L,NS) (+,e,a,t6) cost(+,e,a,t6)=0+2+1 cost(+,a,e,t6)=0+0+1 -- a is dead after this Add r4,r1t6(L,S)c(L,NS)d(L,S)e(L,NS)

12. Register Tracking – 4 Tuple/Code GeneratedRegisterAssoc r1r2r3r4 (+,t6,c,t7) cost(+,t6,c,t7)=0+0+1 cost(+,c,t6,t7)=0+0+1 Add r2,r1t7(L,S)c(D,NS)d(L,S)e(L,NS) (=,t7,t8) Store d,r3 -- Store since f is not -- live in block t7(D,NS)d(L,S)e(L,NS)

13. Register Tracking – 5 Tuple/Code GeneratedRegisterAssoc r1r2r3r4 (+,d,e,t8) cost(+,d,e,t8)=0+0+1 cost(+,e,d,t8)=0+0+1 Store d,r3 -- Store is unavoidable Add r3,r4 d(L,NS) t8(L,S) e(L,NS) (=,t8,a) Store a,r3 -- Store is unavoidable

14. Optimized Code 1.Load b,r1 9. Sub b,r3 2.Load c,r2 10. Add r2,r3 3.Mul r2, r1 11. Add r4,r1 4.Load d,r3 12. Add r2,r1 5.Load e,r4 13. Store d,r3 6.Mul r4,r3 14. Store d,r3 7.Add r3,r1 15. Add r3,r4 8.Load d,r3 16. Store a,r3

15. Effects of Aliasing Let N be a name that can alias data objects. N can be a: –reference parameter –pointer –indexed variable For N we compute a set O of data objects that it may alias, i.e. set of all; –variables of a given type –heap objects of a given type –array elements

16. Reference to N When N is referenced: Examine register association list If any data object o  O appears with status S, the store must be completed before N is referenced

17. Assignment to N When assignment to N is made: If any data object o  O appears in the register association list, it must be removed. Removal reflects that the assignment to N may have changed the value of o, invalidating the value currently held in the register associated with o.

18. Subprogram Calls Allocatable registers are normally saved and restored across subprogram calls.

19. Caller Saves and Restores Registers Save (L,S) Don’t save (L,NS) Then, free all registers On return, only those variables that are needed are reloaded into registers

20. Callee Saves and Restores Registers Callee knows how many registers callee will use Possibly, some number of caller’s registers will not be used and therefore can remain untouched across subprogram call Divide callee registers to be used into two groups: –Def: set of variables that may be defined (updated) –Use; Set of variables that may be used (referenced only) Before call, save all data objects o  Use that appear in register association list with status S Similarly, remove all data objects o  Def from register association list That is, save values that may be referenced during the call, and remove associations that will be invalidated by assignments during the call

21. Register Tracking Variations Spill register whose next reference is most distant. Consider next two references Coloring Algorithm (Chaitin 82) –Register allocation becomes a problem of coloring the graph –Each color is a register Use more precise costing based on instruction size or timing Use additional address modes (immediate, indirect, indexed+base, etc) Consider different register classes and pairs of adjacent registers

22. Cutting Cost Trade:For: load c, r1load c, r2sub a, r1 load c, r2add b, r2 add b, r2add r2, r1 add r2, r1 cost = 7 cost = 9

23. Global Register Tracking Special operands such as loop indices or procedure arguments can be allocated to fixed registers that can span multiple blocks We can carry register status information forward to basic blocks where predecessors are unique: –i.e., if and case statements –It is not always a good idea to delay saves across block boundaries (might do saves in several successor blocks instead of once in single predecessor blocks

24. Global Difficulties We must agree in all blocks to keep a given data object in the same register or do extra moves Must decide which of the possibly thousands of variables and temps to keep in a small set of available registers Need to do flow-of control analysis and use some mechanism to estimate frequency of reference to variables and temps

25. Free (L,NS) variable v1 with only a cost of 1 (instead of 2) if next time it is referenced as OP v1, r2, instead of Load v1, r1, OP r1, r2 Similarly, free (S,NS) variable v2 with only a cost of 3 (instead of 4) if we do a save and later reference the value as we did v1 above This is a peephole optimization technique Peephole Optimization