1. Copyright©2004 by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1 Elements, Atoms & Ions Chapter 4

2. Lithium is administer ed in the form of lithium carbonate pills.

3. Robert Boyle at 62 years of age.

4. Copyright©2004 by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 4 Elements Over 112 known, of which 88 are found in nature –others are man-made Abundance is the percentage found in nature –oxygen most abundant element (by mass) on earth and in the human body –the abundance and form of an element varies in different parts of the environment Each element has a unique symbol The symbol of an element may be one letter or two –if two letters, the second is lower case

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7. Various forms of the element gold.

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9. Figure 4.1: John Dalton (1766 – 1844) was an English scientist who made his living as a teacher in Manchester.

10. Copyright©2004 by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 10 Dalton’s Atomic Theory ÊElements are composed of atoms –tiny, hard, unbreakable, spheres ËAll atoms of a given element are identical –all carbon atoms have the same chemical and physical properties ÌAtoms of a given element are different from those of any other element –carbon atoms have different chemical and physical properties than sulfur atoms

11. Copyright©2004 by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 11 Dalton’s Atomic Theory ÍAtoms of one element combine with atoms of other elements to form compounds. –Law of Constant Composition all samples of a compound contain the same proportions (by mass) of the elements –Chemical Formulas

12. Copyright©2004 by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 12 Dalton’s Atomic Theory ÎAtoms are indivisible in a chemical process. –all atoms present at beginning are present at the end –atoms are not created or destroyed, just rearranged –atoms of one element cannot change into atoms of another element cannot turn Lead into Gold by a chemical reaction

13. Copyright©2004 by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company.All rights reserved. 4a–13 Figure 4.2: Dalton pictured compounds as collections of atoms. Here NO, NO 2, and N 2 O are represented.

14. Copyright©2004 by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 14 Formulas Describe Compounds a compound is a distinct substance that is composed of atoms of two or more elements describe the compound by describing the number and type of each atom in the simplest unit of the compound –molecules or ions each element represented by its letter symbol the number of atoms of each element is written to the right of the element as a subscript –if there is only one atom, the 1 subscript is not written polyatomic groups are placed in parentheses –if more than one

15. Copyright©2004 by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 15 Are Atoms Really Unbreakable? J.J. Thomson investigated a beam called a cathode ray he determined that the ray was made of tiny negatively charged particles we call electrons his measurements led him to conclude that these electrons were smaller than a hydrogen atom if electrons are smaller than atoms, they must be pieces of atoms if atoms have pieces, they must be breakable Thomson also found that atoms of different elements all produced these same electrons

16. Figure 4.3: One of the early models of the atom was the plum pudding model.

17. Copyright©2004 by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 17 The Electron Tiny, negatively charged particle Very light compared to mass of atom –1/1836 th the mass of a H atom Move very rapidly within the atom

18. Copyright©2004 by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 18 Thomson’s Plum Pudding Model ÊAtom breakable!! ËAtom has structure ÌElectrons suspended in a positively charged electric field –must have positive charge to balance negative charge of electrons and make the atom neutral Ímass of atom due to electrons Îatom mostly “empty” space –compared size of electron to size of atom

19. Copyright©2004 by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 19 Rutherford’s Gold Foil Expt How can you prove something is empty? put something through it –use large target atoms use very thin sheets of target so do not absorb “bullet” –use very small particle as bullet with very high energy but not so small that electrons will affect it bullet = alpha particles, target atoms = gold foil –  particles have a mass of 4 amu & charge of +2 c.u. – gold has a mass of 197 amu & is very malleable

20. Figure 4.4: Ernest Rutherford (1871 – 1937) was born on a farm in New Zealand.

21. Copyright©2004 by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company.All rights reserved. 4a–21 Figure 4.5: Rutherford’s experiment on  -particle bombardment of metal foil.

22. Copyright©2004 by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 22 Rutherford’s Results Over 98% of the  particles went straight through About 2% of the  particles went through but were deflected by large angles About 0.01% of the  particles bounced off the gold foil

23. Copyright©2004 by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 23 Rutherford’s Nuclear Model ÊThe atom contains a tiny dense center called the nucleus –the volume is about 1/10 trillionth the volume of the atom ËThe nucleus is essentially the entire mass of the atom ÌThe nucleus is positively charged –the amount of positive charge of the nucleus balances the negative charge of the electrons ÍThe electrons move around in the empty space of the atom surrounding the nucleus

24. Copyright©2004 by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company.All rights reserved. 4a–24 Figure 4.6: (a) The results that the metal foil experiment would have yielded if the plum pudding model had been correct. (b) Actual results.

25. Copyright©2004 by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 25 Structure of the Nucleus The nucleus was found to be composed of two kinds of particles Some of these particles are called protons –charge = +1 –mass is about the same as a hydrogen atom Since protons and electrons have the same amount of charge, for the atom to be neutral there must be equal numbers of protons and electrons The other particle is called a neutron –has no charge –has a mass slightly more than a proton

26. Copyright©2004 by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company.All rights reserved. 4a–26 Figure 4.7: Schematic of a cathode ray tube.

27. Copyright©2004 by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company.All rights reserved. 4a–27 Figure 4.8: A CRT being used to display computer graphics.

28. Copyright©2004 by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 28 The Modern Atom We know atoms are composed of three main pieces - protons, neutrons and electrons The nucleus contains protons and neutrons The nucleus is only about 10 -13 cm in diameter The electrons move outside the nucleus with an average distance of about 10 -8 cm –therefore the radius of the atom is about 10 5 times larger than the radius of the nucleus

29. Figure 4.9: A nuclear atom viewed in cross section.

30. Copyright©2004 by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company.All rights reserved. 4a–30

31. Copyright©2004 by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 31 Isotopes All atoms of an element have the same number of protons The number of protons in an atom of a given element is the same as the atomic number –found on the Periodic Table Atoms of an element with different numbers of neutrons are called isotopes All isotopes of an element are chemically identical –undergo the exact same chemical reactions Isotopes of an element have different masses Isotopes are identified by their mass numbers –mass number = protons + neutrons

32. Copyright©2004 by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company.All rights reserved. 4a–32 Figure 4.10: Two isotopes of sodium.

33. Copyright©2004 by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company.All rights reserved. 4a–33 Ancient Anasazi Indian cliff dwellings.

34. Copyright©2004 by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 34 Elements Arranged in a pattern called the Periodic Table Position on the table allows us to predict properties of the element Metals –about 75% of all the elements –lustrous, malleable, ductile, conduct heat and electricity Nonmetals –dull, brittle, insulators Metalloids –also know as semi-metals –some properties of both metals & nonmetals

35. Copyright©2004 by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 35 The Modern Periodic Table Elements with similar chemical and physical properties are in the same column Columns are called Groups or Families Rows are called Periods Each period shows the pattern of properties repeated in the next period

36. Copyright©2004 by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 36 The Modern Periodic Table Main Group = Representative Elements –“A” columns Transition Elements –all metals Bottom rows = Inner Transition Elements = Rare Earth Elements –metals –really belong in Period 6 & 7

37. Copyright©2004 by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 37 Important Groups Group 8 = Noble Gases He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn all colorless gases at room temperature very non-reactive, practically inert found in nature as a collection of separate atoms uncombined with other atoms Noble Metals Ag, Au, Pt all solids at room temperature least reactive metals found in nature uncombined with other atoms

38. Copyright©2004 by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 38 Important Groups - Halogens Group 7A = Halogens very reactive nonmetals react with metals to form ionic compounds HX all acids Fluorine = F 2 –pale yellow gas Chlorine = Cl 2 –pale green gas Bromine = Br 2 –brown liquid that has lots of brown vapor over it –Only other liquid element at room conditions is the metal Hg Iodine = I 2 –lustrous, purple solid

39. Copyright©2004 by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 39 Allotropes Many solid nonmetallic elements can exist in different forms with different physical properties, these are called allotropes the different physical properties arise from the different arrangements of the atoms in the solid Allotropes of Carbon include –diamond –graphite –buckminsterfullerene

40. Copyright©2004 by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 40 Electrical Nature of Matter Most common pure substances are very poor conductors of electricity –with the exception of metals and graphite –Water is a very poor electrical conductor Some substances dissolve in water to form a solution that conducts well - these are called electrolytes When dissolved in water, electrolyte compounds break up into component ions –ions are atoms or groups of atoms that have an electrical charge

41. Copyright©2004 by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 41 Ions ions that have a positive charge are called cations –form when an atom loses electrons ions that have a negative charge are called anions –form when an atom gains electrons ions with opposite charges attract –therefore cations and anions attract each other moving ions conduct electricity compound must have no total charge, therefore we must balance the numbers of cations and anions in a compound to get 0 total charge

42. Copyright©2004 by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 42 Atomic Structures of Ions Metals form cations For each positive charge the ion has 1 less electron than the neutral atom –Na = 11 e -, Na + = 10 e - –Ca = 20 e -, Ca +2 = 18 e - Cations are named the same as the metal sodiumNa  Na + + 1e - sodium ion calciumCa  Ca +2 + 2e - calcium ion The charge on a cation can be determined from the Group number on the Periodic Table for Groups IA, IIA, IIIA –Group 1A  +1, Group 2A  +2, (Al, Ga, In)  +3

43. Copyright©2004 by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 43 Atomic Structures of Ions Nonmetals form anions For each negative charge the ion has 1 more electron than the neutral atom –F = 9 e -, F - = 10 e - –P = 15 e -, P 3- = 18 e - Anions are named by changing the ending of the name to -ide fluorineF + 1e -  F - fluoride ion oxygenO + 2e -  O 2- oxide ion The charge on an anion can be determined from the Group number on the Periodic Table –Group 7A  -1, Group 6A  -2