1. Lecture 3 Interfaces Pointers to Functions Memory bugs, File I/O Variables – the special kind

2. Interfaces A definition of a set of functions that provide a coherent module (or library) –Data structure (e.g., list, binary tree) –User interface (e.g., drawing graphics) –Communication (e.g., device driver)

3. Interface - modularity Hide the details of implementing the module from its usage –Specification – “what” –Implementation – “how”

4. Interface – information hiding Hide “private” information from outside –The “outside” program should not be able to use internal variables of the module –Crucial for modularity Resource management –Define who controls allocation of memory

5. Example interface - StrStack A module that allows to maintain a stack of strings Operations: –Create new –Push string –Pop string –IsEmpty [See attached StrStack.h]

6. Implementation of StrStack Decision #1: data structure Linked list Array (static? dynamic?) Linked list of arrays … We choose linked list for simplicity

7. Implementation of StrStack Decision #2: Resource allocation Duplicated strings on stack or keep pointer to original? If duplicate, who is responsible for freeing them? We choose not to duplicate --- leave this choice to user of module

8. Implementation of StrStack See StrStack.c

9. Using StrStack int main() { char *Line; StrStack *Stack = StrStackNew(); while( (Line = ReadLine()) != NULL ) StrStackPush( Stack, Line ); while( (Line = StrStackPop(Stack)) != NULL ) { printf("%s\n", Line ); free( Line ); } return 0; }

10. Interface Principles Hide implementation details Hide data structures Don’t provide access to data structures that might be changed in alternative implementation A “visible” detail cannot be later changed without changing code using the interface!

11. Interface Principles Use small set of “primitive” actions Provide to maximize functionality with minimal set of operations Do not provide unneeded functions “just because you can”

12. Interface Principles Don’t reach behind the back Do not use global variables or unexpected side effects Do not assume specific order of operations by the user –Such assumptions suggest the set of primitives is wrong

13. Interface Principle Consistent Mechanisms Do similar things in a similar way –strcpy(dest, source) –memcpy(dest, source)

14. Interface Principle Resource Management Free resource at the same level it was allocated Assumptions about resources

15. Pointers to functions

16. Pointers to Functions C/C++ allow to have a pointer to a function int foo(int x) {…} main() { int (*func)(int); // func is a pointer to a function func = &foo; func = foo; // same int x = (*func)(7); // same as x = foo(7) }

17. Example: Numerical Integrator

18. double numericalIntegration( double a, double b, double (*func)(double), int k ) { double delta = (b - a)/k; double Sum = 0; for( double x = a+0.5*delta; x < b; x+= delta ) Sum += (*func)(x); return Sum*delta; } See NumericalIntergator.c

19. “Generic” interface Pointers to functions provide a way to write code that receives functions as arguments For example sorting – you can apply different comparison functions –increasing and decreasing order can be computed using the same algorithm code –Different data types can be sorted using the same algorithm code

20. Example: qsort Library procedure: qsort( void *base, size_t n, size_t size, int (*compare)(void const*, void const *) ); base – start of an array n – number of elements size – size of each element compare – comparison function

21. Using qsort int compareInt(void const *p, void const *q) { int a = *(int const*)p; int b = *(int const*)q; if( a < b ) return -1; return a > b; } … int array[10] = { … }; qsort( array, 10, sizeof(int), compareInt );

22. argv & argc To pass command line arguments to our program we should use the following main declaration: main(int argc, char* argv[]) {... Compare to main(String[] args) in java. Unlike java the first argument is the name of the program itself.  char** argv   char argv[][]

23. argv & argc: example $ prog1 –u danny –p 1234 argc = 5 argv[0] = “prog1” argv[1] = “-u”... argv[4] = “1234” Always: argv[argc] = 0

24. File I/O File I/O is mostly similar to stdin & stdout I/O. Most I/O functions we encountered have a “file” counterpart which receives a FILE pointer (handle). Examples: getchar(void) fgetc(FILE*) scanf(const char *,...) fscanf(FILE*, const char*,...) printf(const char *,...) fprintf(FILE*, const char*,...) The standard streams ( stdin, stdout, stderr ) are also of FILE* type. See related man pages: fprintf, fscanf, etc.

25. File I/O example: mywc #include #include #include main(int argc, char* argv[]) { FILE* fp; int wc = 0, ch; if (argc != 2) { printf("Usage: mywc \n"); exit(1); } errno = 0; fp = fopen(argv[1], "r"); if (fp == NULL) { perror(“”); exit(1); }

26. File I/O example while (1) { while ((ch = fgetc(fp)) != EOF && isspace(ch)) ; if (ch == EOF) break; wc++; while ((ch = fgetc(fp)) != EOF && !isspace(ch)) ; if (ch == EOF) break; } fclose(fp); printf("There are %d words in %s\n", wc, argv[1]); return 0; } Related man pages: fopen, fclose

27. Inter module variables’ scope

28. Static variables Static variables in a function keep their value for the next call to the function –Allocated on the heap (1)void getUniqueID() { (2) static int id=0; (3) id++; (4) return id; (5)} (6)int main() { (7) int i = getUniqueID(); //i=1 (8) int j = getUniqueID(); //j=2 (9)}

29. Static variables, cont. “static” variable on the global scope –Available only in the current module “extern” variable –Defined outside the module file2.c extern int y; //y from file1.c extern int x; //x defined elsewhere int myFunc() { int y; //error … } file1.c int y; static int x; int myFunc() { int x; //error … }

30. C’s “const” is a qualifier that can be applied to the declaration of any variable to specify its value will not be changed. const double e = 2.71828; const char msg[] =“Warning:”; msg[1] = ‘w’; // illegal ! C ’s “const”

31. Do not confuse what the “const” declaration “protects” ! –A pointer to a const variable: int const * p = {1,2,3}; p[1] = 1; // illegal! *(p+1) = 1; // illegal! p = NULL; //legal –A const pointer to a variable: int* const const_p = {1,2,3}; const_p[1] = 0; // legal ! const_p = NULL; // illegal! C ’s “const” 321 321

32. Pointer’s Syntax Compare: (1)int * const p = {1,2,3}; (2)const int * p = {1,2,3}; (3)int const * p = {1,2,3}; (2) and (3) are synonyms in C to a pointer to a const array. We encourage right to left reading of declarations, to achieve better readability and avoid errors.` DO NOT TRY THIS AT HOME

33. Pointers and User Defined Types struct Complex { int img; int real; }; Complex comp2; Complex const comp1 = comp2; //ok,initialize using comp2 Complex comp3; comp1.img = 3; // illegal ! comp1 value is constant comp1=comp3; // illegal ! comp1 value is constant All the members of a const variable are immutable !

34. Compare to Java’s “final” All (methods as well as data ) are Class members. “final” makes primitive types constants and references to objects constant. The values inside the referred objects are not constant ! final int LIMIT = 10; int LIMIT = 11;// illegal ! final MyObject obj1 = MyObject(); MyObject obj2 = NULL; MyObject obj3 = MyObject(); obj2 = obj1;//fine, both point now to the same object obj1 = obj3; // illegal ! obj1.setSomeValue(5); // legal ! * Because All are class members you would normally use them as class constants and declare them as “static final”

35. “Const” Usage The const declaration can (and should !) be used in the definition of a function’s arguments, to indicate it would not change them: int strlen(const char []); Why use ? (This is not a recommendation but a must) –Clearer code –Avoids errors –Part of the interfaces you define! We will see more of “const” meaning and usage when we get to C++

36. Memory related bugs Memory leaks. Accessing random/freed memory addresses.

37. malloc_stats() By including malloc.h you can use the malloc_stats() function which prints to the stderr information about the amount of used memory. Example:... malloc_stats(); destroyDictionary(dict); malloc_stats();...

38. malloc_stats() cntd. With memory leak: Arena 0: system bytes = 8140 in use bytes = 6860... Arena 0: system bytes = 8140 in use bytes = 4084... Without memory leak: Arena 0: system bytes = 8124 in use bytes = 6860... Arena 0: system bytes = 8124 in use bytes = 4...

39. mtrace Log all memory allocations to a file. –The file name is contained in the MALLOC_TRACE environment variable. –For example: $setenv MALLOC_TRACE ~/plab/ex1/trace Analyze the file to find memory leaks using the mtrace utility. The program must: –be compiled with –g flag –#include

40. mtrace example The program: #include int main() { mtrace(); // later we can call muntrace()... muntrace(); return 0; } The log file looks like this: = Start @ [0x80486fd] + 0x804a0e0 0x8 @ [0x804887d] + 0x804a0f0 0x8 @ [0x8048c7d] + 0x804a100 0x14 @ /lib/libc.so.6:(__strdup+0x29)[0x400d7a29] + 0x804a118 0x5 @ [0x8048c7d] + 0x804a128 0x14 @ /lib/libc.so.6:(__strdup+0x29)[0x400d7a29] + 0x804a140 0x3 @ [0x8048c7d] + 0x804a150 0x14...

41. mtrace example cntd. The result of analysis ( mtrace ex1 $MALLOC_TRACE ) Memory not freed: ----------------- Address Size Caller 0x0804a100 0x14 at /home/mush/plab/ex1/strBinTree.c:65 0x0804a128 0x14 at /home/mush/plab/ex1/strBinTree.c:65 0x0804a150 0x14 at /home/mush/plab/ex1/strBinTree.c:65 Memory not freed: ----------------- Address Size Caller 0x0804a118 0x5 at /lib/libc.so.6:(__strdup+0x29)[0x400d7a29] 0x0804a140 0x3 at /lib/libc.so.6:(__strdup+0x29)[0x400d7a29] Another example:

42. MALLOC_CHECK_ By setting this environment variable to 0, 1, 2 we can handle some bugs, most notably freeing twice the same memory. Usually double free causes segmentation fault. When MALLOC_CHECK_ is 0 freeing twice works. When MALLOC_CHECK_ is 1 an error message is printed. –Example: free(): invalid pointer 0x80497b8! When MALLOC_CHECK_ is 2 the program (gracefully) aborts.

43. ElectricFence u ElectricFence is a library which allows to catch accesses to memory that was already freed, as well as off-by-one errors. u It will cause the program to segfault in the above cases, which is usually better than continue running and have unpredictable errors later. Example: char* a = (char*)malloc(100*sizeof(char));... a[100] = 'c'; // ElectricFence will cause segfault

44. ElectricFence cntd. Example: Node* n1 = (Node*)malloc(sizeof(Node));... free(n1);... n1->x = 7; // ElectricFence will cause segfault  To use ElectricFence you should link your program with the efence library.  For example: g++ prog1.o list.o read.o -lefence

45. Commercial products Purify BoundsChecker MS’s VisualStudio