1. Research Methods for Business Students
Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill
Second Edition
Chapter Research Methods for Business Students
Dr. Wasim Al-Habil.

2. Research Methods for Business Students
Chapter 6
Research Methods for Business Students

3. Key Topics
Understand the need for sampling in business and management research
Be aware of a range of probability and non-probability sampling techniques and the possible need to combine techniques within a research project
Be able to select appropriate sampling techniques for a variety of research scenarios and be able to justify their selection
Be able to use a range of sampling techniques
Be able to assess the representativeness of respondents
Be able to apply the knowledge, skills and understanding gained to your own research project

4. Differing approaches to research (Review)
Data collection
Methods
Involve:
Sampling
Secondary data
Observation
Interviews
Questionnaires
(See future notes)

5. Sampling The research Process: Progressive Problem solving
Wish to research
The research
Process:
Progressive
Problem
solving
Formulate and clarify your
Research topic
Critically review the literature
Sampling
Choose your research
approach and strategy
Negotiate access and
address ethical issues
Plan your data collection and collect the data using one or more of :
Sampling
Secondary data
Observation
Semi-structured and in-depth interviews
Questionnaires
Analyse your data using one or both of:
Quantitative methods
Qualitative methods
Write your project report
Submit your report

6. 6.1 Introduction
Sampling techniques provide a range of methods that enable you to reduce the amount of data you need to collect by considering only data from a subgroup rather than all possible cases or elements.
Techniques for selecting samples are very important.

7. Key Words A CENSUS is where you collect data from every single case.
With SAMPLING you take only data from a sub-group
rather than all possible cases or ‘elements’.
A POPULATION refers to the full set of cases from
which a sample is made.
SAMPLING ERROR: The difference between the sample and the population from which you selected your sample.
You can take a ‘POPULATION’ from UNRWA or Jawwal organizations in Palestine.

8. 6.1 Introduction The need to sample:
It would be impracticable for you to survey the entire population.
Your budget constraints prevent you from surveying the entire population.
Your time constraints prevent you from surveying the entire population.
You have collected al the data but need the results quickly.

9. Population, sample and individual cases
Case or
element

10. 6.1 Introduction An overview of sampling techniques:
Probability or representative sampling
Non-probability or judgmental sampling

11. Sampling techniques
Sampling
Probability
Non-Probability

12. Overview of sampling techniques
PROBABILITY SAMPLING:
The chance or probability of each case being selected from the population is known and is equal for all cases.
Thus you CAN estimate the characteristics of the population from the sample.

13. Overview of sampling techniques
NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING:
The chance or probability of each case being selected from the population is NOT known.
Thus you CANNOT estimate the characteristics of the population from the sample.
GENERALISATION is possible, but not on statistical grounds. Associated with case studies.

14. 6.2 Probability sampling
1. Identify a suitable sampling frame based on your
Research question(s) or objectives;
2. Decide on a suitable sample size;
3. Select the most appropriate sampling technique and
select the sample;
4. Check that the sample is representative of the pop.

15. 6.2 Probability sampling Deciding on a suitable sample size
Generalizations about populations from data collected using any probability sample are based on probability. The larger your sample’s size the lower the likely error in generalizing to the population.
The final sample size is almost always a matter of judgment as well as calculation.
Researchers normally work to a 95 percent level of certainty.

16. 6.2 Probability sampling Identifying a suitable sampling frame
The sampling frame for any probability sample is a complete list of all the cases in the population from which your sample will be drawn.
The completeness of your sampling frame is very important. An incomplete or inaccurate list means that some cases will have been excluded and so it will be impossible for every case in the population to have a chance of selection.
It is important to ensure that the sampling frame is unbiased, current and accurate.

17. 6.2 Probability sampling Deciding on a suitable sample size:
The confidence you need to have in your data,
The margin of error that you can tolerate
The types of analyses you are going to undertake
The size of the total population from which your sample is being drawn

18. Deciding on a suitable sampling size
Your choice is influenced by:
1. The confidence you have in your data –
the level of certainty that the characteristics
of the data collected will represent the total
population;
2. The margin of error you can tolerate, I.e. the
accuracy you require for any estimates from your
sample

19. Table 6.2 sample sizes at a 95% level of certainty
Margin of error
Population 5% 3% 2% 1% 50 44 48 49
200
132
168
185
196
300
234
267
291
400
334
384
1000
278
516
706
906

20. Deciding on a suitable sampling size
Your choice is influenced by:
3. The types of statistical analyses you are
going to undertake
4. The size of the total population from which
Your sample is being drawn.

21. 6.2 Probability sampling The importance of a high response rate:
A perfect representative sample is one that exactly represents the population from which it is taken.
In reality, you are likely to have non-responses. Non-respondents are different from the rest of the population because they have refused to be involved in your research for whatever reason.
In addition, any non-responses will necessitate extra respondents being found to reach the required sample size, thereby increasing the cost of your survey.

22. 6.2 Probability sampling The importance of a high response rate:
Non-response is due to four inter-related problems:
Refusal to respond
Ineligibility to respond
Inability to locate respondent
Respondent located but unable to make contact

23. 6.2 Probability sampling The importance of a high response rate:
Total Response Rate.
Active Response Rate.
Estimating response rates and actual sample size required

24. The importance of a high response rate
Total Response rate = total number of responses
total number in sample – ineligible
Active Response rate = total number of responses
total number in sample – (ineligible+unreachable)

25. 6.2 Probability sampling
Selecting the most appropriate sampling technique and the sample:
Simple random
Systematic
Stratified random
Cluster
Multi-stage

26. Probability Sampling Probability Sampling Stratified random Simple
Systematic
Cluster
Multi-
stage

27. 6.2 Probability sampling
Simple random sampling: It involves you selecting the sample at random from the sampling frame using either random number tables or a computer:
Number each of the cases in your sampling frame with a unique number. The first case is numbered 0, the second 1 and so on.
Select cases using random numbers until your actual sample size is reached.

28. 6.2 Probability sampling
Systematic sampling: It involves you selecting the sample at regular intervals from the sampling frame.
Number each of the cases in your sampling frame with a unique number. The first cases is numbered 0, the second 1 and so on.
Select the first case using a random number.
Calculate the sampling fraction (Actual Sampling Size/Total Population). i,g. ¼
Select subsequent cases systematically using the sampling fraction to determine the frequency of selection.

29. 6.2 Probability sampling
Stratified random sampling: It is a modification of random sampling in which you divide the population into two or more relevant and significant strata based on one or a number of attributes.
Choose the stratification variable or variables.
Divide the sampling frame individually into the discrete strata; i.g. male or female, BA or Master’s graduates.
Number each of the cases within each stratum with a unique number, as discussed earlier.
Select your sample using either simple random or systematic sampling, as discussed earlier.

30. 6.2 Probability sampling
Cluster (Grouping) sampling: Your sampling frame is the complete list of clusters rather than a complete list of individual cases within the population. You then select a few clusters, normally suing simple random sampling. Data are then collected from every case within the selected clusters.
Choose the cluster grouping for your sampling frame. I.g. geographical sub-areas.
Number each of the clusters with a unique number. The first cluster 0, the second 1, and so on.
Select your sampling using some form of random sampling as discussed earlier.
Examples: Random sample of customers from north, middle, and south areas of Gaza OR random sample of all 2nd Year students from our cluster of Gazan Universities.

31. 6.2 Probability sampling
Multi-stage sampling: A development of cluster sampling used whenever a researcher is facing problems in a wide and large geography where population is dispersed.
Because multi-stage sampling relies on a series of different sampling frames you need to ensure that they are all appropriate and available.
See figure 6.4 in page 168

32. 6.2 Probability sampling Checking the sample is representative:
Often it is possible to compare data you collect from your sample with data from another source for the population.
If there is no statistically significant difference then the sample is representative with respect to these characteristics.
You could use Kolmogorov-Smirnov one sample test.

33. 6.3 Non-probability sampling
Quota
Purposive
Extreme case
Heterogeneous
Homogeneous
Critical case
Typical case
Snowball
Self-selection
convenience

34. Non-probability sampling
Snowball
Quota
Purposive
Self-
selection
Con-
venience
Homogeneous
Critical
case
Typical
case
Extreme
case
Heterogeneous

35. 6.3 Non-probability sampling
Quota sampling
It is based on the premise that your sample will represent the population as the variability in your sample for various quota variables is the same as that in the population. It is often used for Interview Surveys; i.g. market surveys depends on gender, age, and socioeconomic status.
Divide the population into specific groups.
Calculate a quota for each group based on relevant and available data.
Give each interviewer an assignment, which states the number of cases in each quota from which they must collect data.
Combine the data collected by interviewers to provide the full sample.

36. 6.3 Non-probability sampling
Quota sampling is normally used for large populations.
Calculations of quotas are based on relevant and available data and are usually relative to the proportions in which they occur in the population.
Your choice of quota is dependent on two main factors:
Usefulness as a means of stratifying the data.
Ability to overcome likely variations between groups in their availability for interview.

37. 6.3 Non-probability sampling
Purposive sampling
Purposive or judgmental sampling enables you to use your judgment to select cases that will best enable you to answer your question and the meet your objectives.
This form of sample is often used when working with very small samples such as in case study research and when you wish to select cases that are particularly informative.

38. 6.3 Non-probability sampling
Purposive sampling:
Such samples cannot be considered to be statistically representative of the total population.
The logic on which base your strategy for selecting cases for a purposive sample should be dependent on your research question and objectives.

39. 6.3 Non-probability sampling
Purposive sampling
Extreme case or deviant sampling focuses on unusual or special cases on the basis that the data collected about these unusual or extreme outcomes will enable you to learn the most and to answer your research question and to meet your objectives most effectively.
This is often based on the premise that findings from extreme cases will be relevant in understanding or explaining more typical cases.
Example of Case Study: Why some business organizations have excellent and super performances.

40. 6.3 Non-probability sampling
Purposive sampling
Heterogeneous or maximum variation sampling enables you to collect data to describe and explain the key themes that can be observed. In addition, the data collected should enable you to document uniqueness.
To ensure maximum variation within a sample, it is suggested that you identify your diverse characteristics (sample selection criteria) prior to selecting your sample.
Example of case study: The impact of a certain pay system on the performance of all types of managers in three organizations.

41. 6.3 Non-probability sampling
Purposive sampling:
Homogeneous sampling focuses on one particular subgroup in which all the sample members are similar. This enables you to study the group in great depth.
Example of case study: The impact of a certain pay system on the performance of middle managers in three organization.

42. 6.3 Non-probability sampling
Purposive sampling
Critical case sampling selects critical cases on the basis that they can make a point dramatically or because they are important.
The focus of data collection is to understand what is happening in each critical case so that logical generalizations can be made.
Example of case study: X crumbled banks after the global financial crisis.

43. 6.3 Non-probability sampling
Purposive sampling
Typical case sampling is usually used as part of a research project to provide an illustrative profile using a representative case. (In contrast to Critical case sampling)
Such a sample enables you to provide an illustration of that is “typical” to those who will be reading your research report and may be unfamiliar with the subject matter. It is not intended to be definitive.
Example of case study: X profitable and well-performed banks after the global financial crisis.

44. 6.3 Non-probability sampling
Snowball sampling
It is commonly used when it is difficult to identify members of the desired population, for example people who are working while claiming unemployment benefit.
Make contact with one or two cases in the population.
Ask these cases to identify further cases.
Ask these new cases to identify further new cases (and so on).
Stop when either no new cases are given or the sample is as large as is manageable.

45. 6.3 Non-probability sampling
Self-selection sampling
It occurs when you allow a case, usually an individual, to identify their desire to take part in the research.
Publicize your need for cases, either by advertising through appropriate media or by asking them to take part in.
Collect data from those who respond.

46. 6.3 Non-probability sampling
Convenience or haphazard sampling
It involves selecting haphazardly those cases that are easiest to obtain for your sampling, such as the person interviewed at random in a shopping center for a television program.
The sample selection process is continued until your required sample size has been reached.
Often the sample is intended to represent the total population

47. 6.4 Summary
Your choice of sampling techniques is dependent on the feasibility and sensibility of collecting data to answer your research question and to address your objectives form the entire population.
Factors such as the confidence that is needed in the findings, accuracy required and likely categories for analyses will affect the size of the sample that needs to be collected.

48. 6.4 Summary
Sample size and the technique used are also influenced by the availability of resources, in particular financial support and time available to select the sample and to collect, enter into a computer and analyze the data.
Probability sampling techniques all necessitate some form of sampling frame, so they are often more time consuming than non-probability techniques.

49. 6.4 Summary
Non-probability sampling techniques also provide you with the opportunity to select your sample purposively and to reach difficult-to-identify members of the population.
For many research projects you will need to use a combination of different sampling techniques.
All your choices will be dependent on your ability to gain access to organizations. The considerations summarized earlier must therefore be tempered with an understanding of what is practically possible.