1. Understanding Research Results

2. Effect Size Effect Size – strength of relationship & magnitude of effect Effect size r = √ (t2/(t2+df))

3. Effect Size Cohen’s d = magnitude of response in terms of standard deviation units Used when comparing two means Means separated by standard deviations d = M 1 – M 2 √ (SD 2 1 + SD 2 2 )/2

4. Statistical Significance Why use stats? – to determine if your results are reliable The alpha level reflects how confident you are in your results Larger sample sizes reflect the true population better than smaller ones More likely to obtain significant results when the effect size is large

5. TYPE I AND TYPE II ERRORS Type I Errors Made when the null hypothesis is rejected but the null hypothesis is actually true Obtained when a large value of t or F is obtained

6. TYPE I AND TYPE II ERRORS Type II Errors Made when the null hypothesis is accepted although in the population the research hypothesis is true Factors related to making a Type II error Significance (alpha) level Sample size Effect size

7. THE EVERYDAY CONTEXT OF TYPE I AND TYPE II ERRORS

8. CHOOSING A SIGNIFICANCE LEVEL Usually either.05 or.01 significance level is chosen Researchers generally believe that the consequences of making a Type I error are more serious than those associated with a Type II error

9. CHOOSING A SAMPLE SIZE: POWER ANALYSIS Power is a statistical test that determines optimal sample size based on probability of correctly rejecting the null hypothesis Power = 1 – p (Type II error) Effect sizes range and desired power Smaller effect sizes require larger samples to be significant Higher desired power demands a greater sample size Researchers usually use a power between.70 and.90

10. IMPORTANCE OF REPLICATIONS Scientists attach little importance to results of a single study Detailed understanding requires numerous studies examining same variables Researchers look at the results of studies that replicate previous investigations

11. COMPUTER ANALYSIS OF DATA Software Programs SPSS SAS Minitab Microsoft Excel Steps in analysis Input data Conduct analysis Interpret output