1. 4. Empirical-analytical Science
Theories of Science
4. Empirical-analytical Science

2. The ”Essential Tension”
Methodologically:
induction versus deduction
Practically:
experiments versus mathematics
Theoretically:
empiricism versus rationalism

3. Competing Traditions empiricism – rationalism – a British ”style”
closely connected to the economy
observations and data are central
rationalism –
a French ”style”
closely connected to the state and religion
beliefs and concepts are central

4. A Synthetic Tradition German and Scandinavian ”styles”
Combining empiricism and rationalism
Emphasis on systems, wholes
Often connected to scientific practice

5. The Makers of Empiricism
17th century: Bacon, Locke
18th century: Hume, Bentham
19th century: Mill, James
20th century: Russell, Dewey

6. The Makers of Rationalism
17th century: Descartes, Pascal
18th century: Diderot, Condorcet
19th century: Comte, Poincare
20th century: Bergson, Merleau-Ponty

7. The Synthetic Tradition
17th century: Leibniz, Huygens
18th century: Goethe, Linneaus
19th century: Marx, Weber
20th century: Popper, Habermas

8. Logical Empiricism a logic of explanation
focus on scientific statements
theories seen as causal relations
experiments in the mind: thought experiments
science is a matter of logical rules, or ”language games” (Wittgenstein)

9. Popper’s Falsificationism
a logic of discovery
negativism, rather than positivism
theories are conjectures, hypotheses
experiments seen as refutations
truth is a goal rather than a result
science is a continuous process

10. Kuhn’s Revolution a logic of verification
collective understanding of science
theories are exemplary paradigms
experiments are puzzle-solving
truth is a social convention
science is a discontinuous process

11. The Great Debate Methodologically: Practically: Theoretically:
historical versus philosophical
Practically:
particular cases versus general principles
Theoretically:
relativism versus realism

12. Recent Attempts at Synthesis
the concept of research programs (Lakatos)
methodological pluralism (Feyerabend)
constructivism and translation (Latour)
transdisciplinarity and mode 2 (Gibbons et al)
differentiation and contextualization (Haraway)