Classification.

Classification

Are they related?

Systematics- studies diversity of life
It is the study and classification of organisms with the goal of reconstructing their evolutionary history Taxonomy- the field of science that classifies life into groups

Biological Kingdoms 2 Kingdoms Traditional view plants animals

Plantae Fungi Animalia
Biological Kingdoms 5 Kingdoms Whittaker, 1969 Plantae Fungi Animalia Protista Monera

Biological Kingdoms Five kingdom system: Six kingdom system:
Monera Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia Six kingdom system: Eu- bacteria Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia Archae-bacteria Three domain system: Eu- bacteria Archae-bacteria E U K A R Y A Eight kingdom system: Eu- bacteria Archezoa Fungi Plantae Animalia Archae-bacteria Chromista Protista

Classification: Six kingdom system
Eubacteria Archaebacteria E. coli Cyanobacteria Protista Paramecium Diatom Slime mold Plantae Fungi Animalia

Six kingdom system: Monera Protista Plantae Fungi Animalia Eu-
bacteria Archae-bacteria Protista Plantae Fungi Animalia

What are some of the ways we can classify animals?

Primary Grouping Criterion
Cellular complexity Plantae Fungi Animalia Protista Monera (Eubacteria & Archaebacteria) Eukaryotic Prokaryotic

Plantae Fungi Animalia
Other Grouping Criteria Single-celled vs. multicellular Mode of nutrition absorption photosynthesis ingestion Plantae Fungi Animalia Protista Monera Note: Criteria can overlap

Other Grouping Criteria
Mode of Reproduction sexual asexual Respiratory System gas exchange across skin lungs gills

Other Grouping Criteria
Skeleton internal/external bone/cartilage/chitin… Circulatory System none open/closed

Age of Systematics 1700’s Carl Linnaeus Incurable classifier
Flair for creative simplicity 2 word names: “binomial nomenclature”

Names Common names Confusing Ambiguous Scientific names
Agreed upon system Portuguese Man-of-War Bluebottle Physalia physalis

Names Language Latin or Latinized Giving names
A highly technical process Name is author’s choice

Commemorate People Gardenia jasminoides (Dr. Alexander Garden)
Camellia japonica (Joseph Kamel) Strelitzia reginae (Queen Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz) Siegesbeckia orientalis (Dr. Siegesbeck)

Cardinalis cardinalis (red) Railus aquaticus (watery)
Descriptive Cardinalis cardinalis (red) Railus aquaticus (watery) Passer domesticus (house)

Geographic Location Kuhlia sandwicensis (Hawaii)
Periplanata americana (American cockroach) Zosterops japonica (Japanese white-eye)

Pronunciation Divide into syllables Choose where to place emphasis
Monachus schauinslandi Mon/a/chus schau/in/slan/di Hawaiian Monk Seal

Humor in naming Agra vation by Terry Erwin
a tropical beetle that was apparently very difficult to collect. (Agra cadabra, Agra katewinslettae, Agra memnon, Agra sasquatch) Heerz lukenatcha. Name: Agra vation Don’t get it? If you haven't got it by now it's really going to bug you. What is it? Actually it's a very non-aggravating beetle, just one of over 40,000 species found in the family Carabidae. With a bright metallic green back and rufous-coloured head it cuts a very fine figure. The carabid family also includes the bombadier beetle, famous for being able to shoot hot, poisonous chemicals from its backside when annoyed. Where’s it found? In the Peruvian Amazon, not far from the borders with Brazil and Colombia. When was it first named? Who deserves the credit? Terry Erwin, a curator at the Smithsonian Institution. Not only has Doc Erwin discovered and named well over a thousand beetles, he turned conservation biology on its head when his research suggested that there were 30 million species in the world as opposed to the 1 million scientists had previously estimated. Is there a picture? The fine looking fellow to the right is the closely related species Agra eowilsoni, named for the biologist E. O. Wilson. However, we've found no pictures of Agra vation as of yet. Other Agras that Erwin has named include: Agra cadabra, Agra katewinslettae, Agra memnon and Agra sasquatch & Agra yeti, both of which have big feet. Sometimes you have to look a little further into the name as well: Agra dable (think Spanish), Agra lilu (think the Fifth Element), Agra eponine (think Les Miserables) and Agra tuitis (think a free lunch). Another beetle named by Erwin delights under the name Pericompsus bilbo - it's short, fat and has hairy feet. The title image is yet another well-named carabid: Anthia sexguttata. What's Next? Dr Erwin is still naming Agras left, right and centre. Coming soon to a rainforest near you: Agra phobia, Agra beegees, Agra culture and my personal favourite of them all: Agra pefruit. Coming soon in Nutty Nomenclature: Pieza rhea and Heerz lukenatcha. But for the time being here's a couple of bits in a similar vein: Other regulars: Monday: Phunny Phobias Wednesday: Doctor Doctor Thursday: Peculiar Periodicals Friday: End of week timewasters *Agra lilu has a bright red head and is therefore named after Milla Jovovich's character in the Luc Besson film The Fifth Element. (back) *Eponine, is the name of the unfortunate street urchin in Victor Hugo's Les Miserables, who, in the Broadway version of the story, personified tragic beauty. Such is the state of the tropical forests where these beetles live. (back) Title image: School of Ecology and Conservation, University of Agricultural Sciences Bangalore Agra eowilsoni: George Venable/Smithsonian

Keep Plates Clean Or Family Gets Sick Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species Animalia Chordata Actinopterygii Perciformes Pomocentridae Amphirprion ocellaris

Example of Coral Classification
The Mushroom Coral Fungia scutaria Kingdom Animalia Phylum Cnidaria Class Anthozoa Order Scleractinia Family Fungiidae Genus Fungia Species scutaria

Biological Species Organisms that are genetically similar, and have ability to interbreed and produce viable, fertile offspring

Subspecies Might interbreed if a barrier or other challenge was removed (such as distance). Hawaiian endemic snails (kahuli)

Offspring is sterile Panthera tigris tigon Panthera leo

donkey horse mule zebroid

Polar bear: Ursus maritimus
Grizzly bear: Ursus arctos Pizzly or Grolar bear

Wholphin- sealife park False killer whale and dolphin
Tursiops truncatus Pseudorca crassidens Kekaimalu, whose name means "from the peaceful ocean," was born 19 years ago after a surprise coupling between a 14-foot, 2,000-pound false killer whale and a 6-foot, 400-pound dolphin. The animals were the leads in the park's popular tourist water show, featured in the Adam Sandler movie "50 First Dates." Kekaimalu has given birth to two other calves. One lived for nine years and the other, born when Kekaimalu was very young, died a few days after birth. Park researchers suspect the wholphin's father is a 15-foot long Atlantic bottlenose dolphin named Mikioi. "He seems to be totally oblivious to this happening," Lenzi said. False killer whales do not closely resemble killer whales. They grow to 20 feet, weigh up to two tons and have a tapering, rounded snout that overhangs their toothed jaw. Atlantic bottlenose dolphins reach a maximum size of 12 feet and can weigh up to 700 pounds. Sea Life Park officials said they hope to decide on a name for the baby wholphin soon and move her to a large display tank in a few months. The name "wholphin" was invented 19 years ago when a 6-foot dolphin and a 14-foot false killer whale mated and produced an offspring. Prior to that mating, it was not thought possible to mate the two species. Her mother, Punahele, was an Atlantic bottlenose dolphin, while her father, I'anui, was a false killer whale. False killer whales are actually members of the dolphin family and unrelated to killer whales. Males can reach 22 feet in length and weigh as much as two tons, while females are smaller, reaching 16 meters in length. In the wild false killer whales often associate with other species of dolphins, particularly bottlenose dolphins. They are found most often in warm temperate and tropical waters around the world Kekaimalu's and Her Calf Kekaimalu ("from the sheltered ocean") was the name given to that offspring who is now the mother of the new baby wholphin. This was the third pregnancy for Kekaimalu. Both prior offspring have died once in infancy, the other at the age of nine. The new, still unnamed, baby is 3/4 dolphin and 1/4 false killer whale. She has tripled in size since birth. The park's training and veterinary staff has spent long hours over the baby wholphin's first four months collecting data and ensuring that mom and calf were receiving the best possible care before publicly announcing its birth and development. Very energetic and animated, the baby wholphin is interacting well with her mother and trainers. Early in-water interaction with the calf is part of Sea Life Park by Dolphin Discovery's training program, to ensure a high level of trust between calf, mother and trainers, as well as early conditioning for voluntary medical behaviors. Characteristics of a Wholphin The baby wholphin displays notable characteristics inherited from her hybrid lineage. The coloration is a perfect blend between the light gray of the bottlenose dolphin and black of the false killer whale. At this time, the calf is still relying fully on her mother's milk. She nurses intermittently throughout the day and night, with all nursing taking place underwater. Typically, nursing will continue up to nine months before the calf begins sampling her mother's food. At 1-2 years of age, the calf will be completely weaned. Comments from Sea Life Park's General Manager "We are extremely excited about the birth of the baby wholphin," said Dr. Renato Lenzi, general manager of Sea Life Park by Dolphin Discovery. "Mother and calf are doing very well, and we are monitoring them very closely to ensure the best care for them. Over the first 100 days of life of this calf, we had invested more than 2,400 hours of trainers and veterinary time to ensure the best care for mom and baby wholphin." "From a scientific viewpoint, it's interesting for us to observe the anatomical and behavioral development of this baby and how much she has inherited from the two different species that she carries in her genes," Dr. Lenzi said. "As the only living product of a wholphin, we are given a special and unique scientific and educational opportunity." Neither baby nor mother are currently on public display and no date has been set for the baby's public debut.

Kingdom Monera Species number low (~17, 000) Changing as we learn more
Two Divisions Eubacteria (Bacteria & Cyanobacteria) Archaebacteria

Kingdom Monera Prokaryotic Single-celled Diverse energy types:
Chemoautotrophic- Purple sulfur bacteria Photoautotrophic- cyanobacteria Heterotrophic- E. coli

Kingdom Monera Some with cell walls, but cell walls composed of peptidoglycan, not cellulose (as in higher plants). Asexual reproduction

Kingdom Monera

Eubacteria pneumonia cyanobacteria anthrax

Archaebacteria Purple sulfur bacteria

Kingdom Protista Eukaryotic
Generally single-celled; if multicellular, cells not organized into tissues Heterotrophic & autotrophic forms ~ 45,000 species

Kingdom Protista 3 informal groups Plant-like (algal) protists
Animal-like protists Fungus-like protists

Plant-like Protists Diatoms Dinoflagellates Green algae Brown Algae
Red algae Diatoms Dinoflagellates

Chlorophyta: Green Algae
Halimeda opuntia Caulerpa sertularioides Codium edule Dictyosphaeria cavernosa Caulerpa racemosa

Phaeophyta: Brown Algae
Turbinaria ornata Padina japonica Hydroclathrus clathratus Sargassum polyphyllum Sargassum echinocarpum

Rhodophyta: Red Algae Ahnfeltia concinna Acanthophora spicifera
Hypnea chordacea Galaxaura fastigiata Asparagopsis taxiformis

Animal-like Protists Amoeba Cilliates Flagellates 13,000 species

Fungus-like Protists Mildew Water molds Blights 475 species
Downey mildew 475 species Slime molds

Kingdom Plantae Eukaryotic Multicellular organisms True tissues.
Photoautotrophic nutrition. Most adapted for a terrestrial existence and possessing vascular tissues.

Kingdom Plantae Cells with chloroplasts and cellulose cell walls.
Includes mosses, ferns, pine trees, cycads, ginkgos, and flowering plants.

Kingdom Plantae Sea grasses
Halophilia hawaiiana- only form of seagrass in Hawaii

Mangroves

Kingdom Fungi Eukaryotic Generally multicellular, organisms (a few species, e.g., yeast are unicellular). Nutrition: Heterotrophic Saprophytic (absorptive)

Kingdom Fungi Most with cell walls (usually composed of chitin) and complex life histories. Includes molds, yeasts, rusts, and mushrooms, marine fungi

Toad stool Shelf fungus Rhizopus Yeast

Fungus infection in fish

Kingdom Animalia Eukaryotic Multicellular organisms True tissues.
Heterotrophic nutrition

Kingdom Animalia Most exhibit significant capacity for locomotion.
Cells not surrounded by cell walls. Includes sponges, sea anemones, snails, insects, sea stars, fish, reptiles, birds, and human beings.

Phylogentic Relationships of Animals
Platyhelminthes Porifera Mollusca Chordata Arthropoda Annelida Cnideria Nematoda Echinodermata pseudocoelom segmentation acoelom Protostome: schizocoelem Deuterostomes: eucoelom radial symmetry bilateral symmetry no true tissues true tissue Ancestral Protist

Phylum Porifera Class Hexactinellida Class Calcaria Class Desmospongia
Sclerospongia Boring sponge Purple and yellow tube sponge

Portuguese Man-Of-War
Phylum Cnidaria Class Hydrozoa Class Scyphozoa Class Cubozoa Class Anthozoa Hydra Portuguese Man-Of-War Stinging Limu Fire Coral True jellyfish Box jellies Sea wasps Corals Anemones

Phylum Platyhelminthes
Phylum Ctenophora Phylum Platyhelminthes

Phylum Mollusca More than 500,000 known species Class Polyplacophora
Gastropoda Class Bivalvia Class Cephalopoda chitons Snails nudibranchs Squid Octopus Cuttlefish Nautilus clams More than 500,000 known species

Phylum Mollusca Well developed circulatory system
Nervous system with brain Some with good eyes

Body Plan Three main parts: Muscular foot- for movement
Visceral mass- contains most of the internal organs Mantle cavity- houses gills

Generalized Mollusc Anatomy
mantle visceral mass foot

Feeding Types Grazers (radula- scraping tongue) Filter feeding Egg eaters Active predation

Subclass Opithistobranchia
Class Gastropoda Subclass Opithistobranchia Spanish Dancer (nudibranch) & egg mass

Subclass Prosobranchia
Class Gastropoda Subclass Prosobranchia Cone shell Opihi Cowery Triton’s trumpet periwinkle

Class Polyplacophora Chitins

Class Bivalvia

Class Cephalopoda Day octopus

Octopus Intelligence

Mimic octopus from Indonesia
flatfish Sea snake lionfish

Blue-ringed octopus Highly venomous
The brilliantly colored blue ringed octopus (Hapalochlaena lunulata) hunts using a venom so powerful it can kill a human Highly venomous

Phylum Arthropoda Subphylum Uniramia Subphylum trilobita Subphylum
Chelicerata Insects Millipedes Centipede Beetles trilobites Horseshoe crab Sea spiders spiders Subphylum Crustacea Crabs Krill Shrimp Lobster Ispod amphipod

Phylum Arthropoda Insects, crabs, spiders, barnacles
Most species; 80% are insects Hard chitin exoskeleton (must shed to grow) Circulatory system with blood, heart 10,000,000? species

Class Crustacea Yellow spotted guard crab Hawaiian cleaner shrimp
Spiny lobster Anemone carrying hermit crab Banded coral shrimp

Phylum Echinodermata Class Astroidae Class Ophiuroidae Class
Echinoidae Class Holothuroidae Sea stars Brittle stars Sea urchins Sea cucumbers Class Crinoidae Crinoids

Phylum Echinodermata No circulatory system No respiratory system
Excretion (N elimination) by diffusion Simple nervous system, no brain Water-vascular system

Phylum Echinodermata Water Vascular System
Tube feet & associated plumbing Used for walking, clinging to substrate & holding food

Class Echinoidea: sea urchins
Slate pencil urchin Collector urchin Echinometra mathaei Echinothrix calamaris Colobocentrotus atratus

Class Holothuroidea: Sea Cucumbers
Polyplectana kerfersteninii Holothuria atra

Class Asteroidea: Sea Stars
Linckia sp. Acanthaster planci

Class Ophiuroidea: Brittle Stars

Class Crinoidea: Feather Stars

Phylum Chordata Subphylum Urochordata Subphylum Cephalochordata
Vertebrata tunicates lancets Agnathans Fish Sharks tetrapods

Subphylum Urochordata tunicate

Subphylum Cephalochordata lancet

Phylum Porifera Class Hexactinellida Class Calcaria Class Desmospongia
Sclerospongia Boring sponge Purple and yellow tube sponge

Characteristics No true tissues or organs No symmetry
No nerves or muscles Sessile Reproduce sexually and asexually Skeletons composed of CaCO3 or SiO2 spicules or spongin Filter feeders

Skeletal Structure Consists of organized cells supported by a skeleton of: spongin fibers calcareous spicules silica spicules a combination of these, or perhaps no skeletal structure at all

Sponges Phylum Porifera
No Gut Sponges Phylum Porifera

Predators A few species of fish seaslugs
hawks bill and loggerhead turtles Can use toxins to ward off predators

Refuge Sponges provide habitat for wide variety of animals.
As many as 16,000 different species of animals have been found in one loggerhead sponge.

Phylum Cnidaria Class Hydrozoa Class Scyphozoa Class Cubozoa Class Anthozoa Hydra Portuguese Man-Of-War Stinging Limu Fire Coral True jellyfish Box jellies Sea wasps Corals Anemones

Class Hydrozoa Close Up of a Portuguese Man-Of-War

Class Scyphozoa

Class Cubozoa Seawasp Box Jellies

Subclass Zoantharia Order Actinaria Sea Anemones Class Anthozoa

Black Coral & Wire Coral
Subclass Hexacorallia Order Antipatheria Black Coral & Wire Coral Class Anthozoa Black coral Wire coral

Class Anthozoa “True” Stony Corals lobe finger mushroom Porites rus

Phylum Ctenophora

Flatworms Blind digestive cavity Bilaterally symmetrical Thin, simple circulation Sensory organs at front Many parasitic 10,000 species

Feeding

Camouflage flatworm nudibranch

Toxins Staurosporine Tetrodoxin
< Staurosporine and its derivatives belong to a group of organic chemical compounds called indolocarbazole alkaloids. They are known as potent antibiotics and strong insecticides. Two of these compounds, 3-hydroxy-3'-demethoxy-3'-hydroxystaurosporine and 11-hydroxy-4'-N-demethylstaurosporine, were isolated from the marine polyclad flatworm Pseudoceros concineus and his favored food, the ascidian Eudistoma toealensis (Tunicata). Both animals are brightly coloured and show a high abundance in the mangroves of Truk Lagoon, Micronesia. Feeding experiments with tropical reef fish showed that the crude extract from the ascidian was highly deterrent towards fish, suggesting that staurosporine acts as a highly potent chemical defence substance against predators (Schupp et al., 1997). It is not known yet, wether the flatworm's metabolism is able to produce staurosporine by itself. It is more likely that the actual source of the toxic compound is the ascidian. After feeding on the poisonous tunicate the polyclad flatworm becomes unpalatable because it stores the toxin in his own tissues. < Tetrodotoxin is a non-protein organic compound (aminoperhydroquinazoline) and one of the strongest paralytic toxins known today. It is a very specific blocker of voltage-gated Sodium (Na+) channels, large integral membrane proteins that form pores through the plasma membrane of neuronal cells that allow Na+ ions to cross. Pores (=gates) open and close in response to a variety of stimuli such as changes in membrane potential or the presence of certain chemicals outside or inside the cell. Their proper functioning is absolutely essential for neuronal action potentials. Tetrododoxin, however, blocks these channels irreversibly leading to rapid paralysis through interference with neuromuscular conduction.

Pseudoceros dimidiatus
Hawaiian Flatworms Pseudoceros cf. rubroanus Pseudoceros ferrugineus Planocera cf. oligoglena Pseudoceros dimidiatus Pseudobiceros sp.

Phylum Nematoda

Phylum Nematoda Roundworms Primitive body cavity Gut & Anus
No circulatory system Nervous system Very successful- well adapted to every ecosystem Many are parasites Nematodes have successfully adapted to nearly every ecosystem from marine to fresh water, from the polar regions to the tropics, as well as the highest to the lowest of elevations. They are ubiquitous in freshwater, marine, and terrestrial environments, where they often outnumber other animals in both individual and species counts, and are found in locations as diverse as Guam and oceanic trenches. They represent, for example, 90% of all life on the seafloor of the Earth.[3] Their many parasitic forms include pathogens in most plants and animals (including humans). Some nematodes can undergo cryptobiosis. Nematodes are the most speciose phylum after the arthropods, they occur in nearly every habitat including as parasites in all sorts of plants and animals, (they don't like dry places however). One species is known that can live in old vinegar (Turbatrix aceti)and another that as only been found in German beer mats. Though only about species have been described some scientists estimate there may be as many as a million species all told. They can occur in very dense numbers in the soil and rotting vegetation, as many as have been found in a single rotting apple, while millions occur in the top 3cm (1 inch) of a square metre of good quality soil. While there are a huge number of free living Nematodes there are also a large number of parasitic species, many of which cause diseases to man and other animals as well as to plants, nearly every living organism has been found to be parasitised by one species of nematode or another. Most nematodes are reasonably small, they range in size from 100 micrometres in length (1/10th of a mm or 1/250th of an in) to the female Giant Nematode Dioctophyme renale which may be up to 1 metre, or 3 ft long. Ecology Nematodes live in a vast variety of habitats, ecologically they can be divided into free living forms and parasitic forms. Free living forms have a simple life cycle involving 4 juvenile instars on the path from egg to adult. Parasitic species have developed a wide range of variations on this basic theme. The variations involve whether there is a secondary host and the amount of time spent in one or either hosts. There is also considerable variability in the way that they move from one host species to another. thus while many species lay eggs that pass out of the primary host with the faeces where they are eaten by the secondary host which then gets eaten in turn by the primary host after the Nematodes have developed. Because it is not always totally reliable that the secondary host will be eaten just as the Nematode larvae have developed into the infective stage many species have the ability to encyst themselves in the muscle or cuticle of their secondary hosts. Some species use another animal to transport them from one host to another thus Wuchereria bancrofti releases minute live young called 'microfilaria' into the primary hosts blood stream rather than eggs into the digestive tract. These microfilaria get ingested by mosquitoes when they feed on an infected person. Inside the mosquito they live in the mosquitoes gut where they develop until the Larva 3 stage wait for the mosquito to bite another host whereupon they enter the host via the mosquitoes proboscis sheath and the wound it makes in the hosts skin. Nematodes in Mankind Human beings, along with all other living things are host to numerous Nematode parasites. The most common of these is Ascaris lumbricoides with an estimated 700 million people effected globally, this Nematode is not normally fatal and in low numbers may have very little effect on adults, however in heavy doses it can be quite debilitating, especially for children. The Nematodes infecting mankind include several species of filarial worms, the most important of these are Wuchereria bancrofti and Brugia malayi which are very similar and cause lymphatic filariasis, Onchocerca volvulus which causes River Blindness and Loa loa which causes Loiasis. Other species are Dranunculus medinensis known as Guinea Worm, Trichinella spiralis causing Trichinosis, Necator americanus and Ancylostoma duodenale causing Hookworm, Enterobius vermicularis causing Pinworms and Trichuris trichuria causing Whipworm or Trichuriasis. Anatomy Basically a Nematode is a long hollow tube within which is another tube, the alimentary canal and the reproductive organs. Nematodes are round in cross section, this is because unlike the other worms that below them in the phyla table they maintain their body fluids under great pressure (on average internal pressure in a nematode equals 70mm of mercury or 1.49 PSI, with a maximum recorded value of 125mm of mercury or 2.41 PSI). To contain this high pressure nematodes have an extremely tough, yet elastic and flexible cuticle. This cuticle consists of up to 9 layers of proteinaceous fibres, with 3 layers being easily discerned, these are called, from the outside in, the cortex, the matrix layer and the fibre layer. Despite its complexity the Nematode cuticle is permeable to both water and gases, so respiration occurs through it. Beneath the cuticle is a hypodermis and a layer of longitudinal muscle. The combination of the flexure of these muscles with the high pressure of the system produces a characteristic whip-like wriggle that Nematodes use to swim. Scientifically this is called undulatory propulsion with sinusoidal waves passing back along the body. At the anterior (head) end there is a mouth which has 3 lips behind which predatory species possess a few teeth, this leads to a pharynx which is triangular in cross section. Because of the high pressure within the body unsupported organs such as the intestines tend to collapse in much the same way that an uninflated bicycle tube tends to become oval or flat in cross section when laid flat on the table. The pharynx of Nematodes is an efficient pump and forces food into the intestines, there is a one way valve between the intestines and the pharynx. The pharynx can, when this valve is closed, be used to suck liquid food into the mouth. Digestion is rapid and faeces are expelled under pressure. This pressure is so great that the parasitic nematode Ascaris lumbricoides which is about 12cm to 18cm long (5 to 7 inches) may shoot its faeces 60cm or 2 feet into the air. Nematodes, especially free living forms generally have a reasonably well developed nervous system. This is comprised of a circum-pharyngeal nerve ring made up from 4 nerve ganglia from which 6 longitudinal nerves extend down through the body to the various parts of the gut and the reproductive organs. There are also 6 shorter nerves which extend forwards from the circum-pharyngeal ganglia towards the mouth. Nematodes have no circulatory or respiratory organs and the excretion of metabolic waste is via two simple ducts or tubules which have no nephridia or flame cells. Nematodes are copiously reproductive and most of their body cavity, which is a pseudocoelom is filled with paired sets of reproductive organs, either ovaries or testes. Males and females copulate and the male introduces sperm to the females vagina with the help of 2 stiff horny spicules that are a part of his cloaca. Fertilisation is internal and females lay eggs over a prolonged time period, thus a female Ascaris lumbricoides may lay her eggs at the rate of 200,000 per day and have had a total 27 million eggs within her at the start of her reproductive career. Young nematodes hatch from these eggs and go through 4 moults before they become adults. Nematodes are slender, worm-like animals, typically less than 2.5 millimetres (0.10 in) long. The smallest nematodes are microscopic, while free-living species can reach as much as 5 centimetres (2.0 in) and some parasitic species are larger still. The body is often ornamented with ridges, rings, warts, bristles or other distinctive structures.[11] The head of a nematode is relatively distinctive. Whereas the rest of the body is bilaterally symmetrical, the head is radially symmetrical, with sensory bristles and, in many cases, solid head-shields radiating outwards around the mouth. The mouth has either three or six lips, which often bear a series of teeth on their inner edge. An adhesive caudal gland is often found at the tip of the tail.[11] The epidermis is either a syncytium or a single layer of cells, and is covered by a thick collagenous cuticle. The cuticle is often of complex structure, and may have two or three distinct layers. Underneath the epidermis lies a layer of muscle cells. Projections run from the inner surface of these cells towards the nerve cords; this is a unique arrangement in the animal kingdom, in which nerve cells normally extend fibres into the muscles rather than vice versa.[11] The muscle layer surrounds the body cavity, which is filled with a fluid that lacks any form of blood cells. The gut runs down the centre of the cavity.[11] Digestive system The oral cavity is lined with cuticle, which is often strengthened with ridges or other structures, and, especially in carnivorous species, may bear a number of teeth. The mouth often includes a sharp stylet which the animal can thrust into its prey. In some species, the stylet is hollow, and can be used to suck liquids from plants or animals.[11] The oral cavity opens into a muscular sucking pharynx, also lined with cuticle. Digestive glands are found in this region of the gut, producing enzymes that start to break down the food. In stylet-bearing species, these may even be injected into the prey.[11] There is no stomach, with the pharynx connecting directly to the intestine that forms the main length of the gut. This produces further enzymes, and also absorbs nutrients through its lining. The last portion of the intestine is lined by cuticle, forming a rectum which expels waste through the anus just below and in front of the tip of the tail. The intestine also has valves or sphincters at either end to help control the movement of food through the body.[11] Excretory system Nitrogenous waste is excreted in the form of ammonia through the body wall, and is not associated with any specific organs. However, the structures for excreting salt to maintain osmoregulation are typically more complex.[11] In many marine nematodes, there are one or two unicellular renette glands that excrete salt through a pore on the underside of the animal, close to the pharynx. In most other nematodes, these specialised cells have been replaced by an organ consisting of two parallel ducts connected by a single transverse duct. This transverse duct opens into a common canal that runs to the excretory pore.[11] Nervous system Four nerves run the length of the body on the dorsal, ventral, and lateral surfaces. Each nerve lies within a cord of connective tissue lying beneath the cuticle and between the muscle cells. The ventral nerve is the largest, and has a double structure forward of the excretory pore. The dorsal nerve is responsible for motor control, while the lateral nerves are sensory, and the ventral combines both functions.[11] At the anterior end of the animal, the nerves branch from a dense circular nerve ring surrounding the pharynx, and serving as the brain. Smaller nerves run forward from the ring to supply the sensory organs of the head.[11] The body of nematodes is covered in numerous sensory bristles and papillae that together provide a sense of touch. Behind the sensory bristles on the head lie two small pits, or amphids. These are well supplied with nerve cells, and are probably chemoreception organs. A few aquatic nematodes possess what appear to be pigmented eye-spots, but is unclear whether or not these are actually sensory in nature.[11] Reproduction Most nematode species are dioecious, with separate male and female individuals. Both sexes possess one or two tubular gonads. In males, the sperm are produced at the end of the gonad, and migrate along its length as they mature. The testes each open into a relatively wide sperm duct and then into a glandular and muscular ejaculatory duct associated with the cloaca. In females, the ovaries each open into an oviduct and then a glandular uterus. The uteri both open into a common vagina, usually located in the middle of the ventral surface.[11] Reproduction is usually sexual. Males are usually smaller than females (often much smaller) and often have a characteristically bent tail for holding the female for copulation. During copulation, one or more chitinized spicules move out of the cloaca and are inserted into genital pore of the female. Amoeboid sperm crawl along the spicule into the female worm. Nematode sperm is thought to be the only eukaryotic cell without the globular protein G-actin. Eggs may be embryonated or unembryonated when passed by the female, meaning that their fertilized eggs may not yet be developed. A few species are known to be ovoviviparous. The eggs are protected by an outer shell, secreted by the uterus. In free-living roundworms, the eggs hatch into larvae, which appear essentially identical to the adults, except for an under-developed reproductive system; in parasitic roundworms, the life cycle is often much more complicated.[11] Nematodes as a whole possess a wide range of modes of reproduction.[12] Some nematodes, such as Heterorhabditis spp., undergo a process called : intrauterine birth causing maternal death.[13] Some nematodes are hermaphroditic, and keep their self-fertilized eggs inside the uterus until they hatch. The juvenile nematodes will then ingest the parent nematode. This process is significantly promoted in environments with a low or reducing food supply.[13] The nematode model species Caenorhabditis elegans and C. briggsae exhibit androdioecy, which is very rare among animals. The single genus Meloidogyne (root-knot nematodes) exhibit a range of reproductive modes including sexual reproduction, (in which most, but not all, generations reproduce asexually), and both meiotic and mitotic parthenogenesis. The genus exhibits an unusual form of parthenogenesis, in which sperm-producing males copulate with females, but the sperm do not fuse with the ovum. Contact with the sperm is essential for the ovum to begin dividing, but because there is no fusion of the cells, the male contributes no genetic material to the offspring, which are essentially clones of the female.[11] Free-living species In free-living species, development usually consists of four molts of the cuticle during growth. Different species feed on materials as varied as algae, fungi, small animals, fecal matter, dead organisms and living tissues. Free-living marine nematodes are important and abundant members of the meiobenthos. They play an important role in the decomposition process, aid in recycling of nutrients in marine environments and are sensitive to changes in the environment caused by pollution. One roundworm of note is Caenorhabditis elegans, which lives in the soil and has found much use as a model organism. C. elegans has had its entire genome sequenced, as well as the developmental fate of every cell determined, and every neuron mapped. [Parasitic species Nematodes commonly parasitic on humans include ascarids (Ascaris), filarias, hookworms, pinworms (Enterobius) and whipworms (Trichuris trichiura). The species Trichinella spiralis, commonly known as the trichina worm, occurs in rats, pigs, and humans, and is responsible for the disease trichinosis. Baylisascaris usually infests wild animals but can be deadly to humans as well. are Heartworms known for causing Heartworm disease by inhabiting the hearts, arteries, and lungs of dogs and some cats. Haemonchus contortus is one of the most abundant infectious agents in sheep around the world, causing great economic damage to sheep farms. In contrast, entomopathogenic nematodes parasitize insects and are considered by humans to be beneficial. One form of nematode is entirely dependent upon fig wasps, which are the sole source of fig fertilization. They prey upon the wasps, riding them from the ripe fig of the wasp's birth to the fig flower of its death, where they kill the wasp, and their offspring await the birth of the next generation of wasps as the fig ripens. A newly discovered parasitic tetradonematid nematode, Myrmeconema neotropicum, apparently induces fruit mimicry in the tropical antCephalotes atratus. Infected ants develop bright red gasters, tend to be more sluggish, and walk with their gasters in a conspicuous elevated position. These changes likely cause frugivorous birds to confuse the infected ants for berries and eat them. Parasite eggs passed in the bird's feces are subsequently collected by foraging Cephalotes atratus and are fed to their larvae, thus completing the life cycle of Myrmeconema neotropicum.[14] Colorized electron micrograph of soybean cyst nematode (Heterodera sp.) and egg Plant parasitic nematodes include several groups causing severe crop losses. The most common genera are Aphelenchoides (), Ditylenchus, Globodera (potato cyst nematodes), Heterodera (soybean cyst nematodes), , Meloidogyne (root-knot nematodes), , Pratylenchus (lesion nematodes), and Xiphinema (dagger nematodes). Several phytoparasitic nematode species cause histological damages to roots, including the formation of visible galls (e.g. by root-knot nematodes), which are useful characters for their diagnostic in the field. Some nematode species transmit plant viruses through their feeding activity on roots. One of them is Xiphinema index, vector of GFLV (Grapevine Fanleaf Virus), an important disease of grapes. Other nematodes attack bark and forest trees. The most important representative of this group is Bursaphelenchus xylophilus, the pine wood nematode, present in Asia and America and recently discovered in Europe. [edit] Agriculture and horticulture Depending on the species, a nematode may be beneficial or detrimental to plant health. From agricultural and horticulture perspectives, there are two categories of nematode: predatory ones, which will kill garden pests like cutworms, and pest nematodes, like the root-knot nematode, which attack plants and those that act as vectors spreading plant viruses between crop plants. Predatory nematodes can be bred by soaking a specific recipe of leaves and other detritus in water, in a dark, cool place, and can even be purchased as an organic form of pest control. Rotations of plants with nematode resistant species or varieties is one means of managing parasitic nematode infestations. For example, marigolds, grown over one or more seasons (the effect is cumulative), can be used to control nematodes.[15] Another is treatment with natural antagonists such as the fungus gliocladium roseum. Chitosan is a natural biocontrol that elicits plant defense responses to destroy parasitic cyst nematodes on roots of sobyean, corn, sugar beets, potatoes and tomatoes without harming beneficial nematodes in the soil.[16] Furthermore soil steaming is an efficient method to kill nematodes before planting crop. CSIRO has found[17] that there was 13- to 14-fold reduction of nematode population densities in plots having Indian mustard (Brassica juncea) green manure or seed meal in the soil. Hundreds of Caenorhabditis elegans were featured in a research project on NASA's STS-107 space mission (which ended in the Space Shuttle Columbia Disaster).[18] 500,000? species

Phylum Nematoda

Phylum Annelida Class Oligochaeta Class Polychaeta Class Hirudinea
earthworms marine worms leaches

Hawaii Fan worms (feather duster) Spaghetti worms
Sabellastarte sanctijosephi Lanice conchilega Christmas tree worm Fireworm Eurythoe complanata Spirobranchus giganteus

Phylum Mollusca More than 500,000 known species Class Polyplacophora
Gastropoda Class Bivalvia Class Cephalopoda chitons Snails nudibranchs Squid Octopus Cuttlefish Nautilus clams More than 500,000 known species

Phylum Mollusca Well developed circulatory system
Nervous system with brain Some with good eyes

Body Plan Three main parts: Muscular foot- for movement
Visceral mass- contains most of the internal organs Mantle cavity- houses gills

Generalized Mollusc Anatomy
mantle visceral mass foot

Feeding Types Grazers (radula- scraping tongue) Filter feeding Egg eaters Active predation

Subclass Opithistobranchia
Class Gastropoda Subclass Opithistobranchia Spanish Dancer (nudibranch) & egg mass

Subclass Prosobranchia
Class Gastropoda Subclass Prosobranchia Cone shell Opihi Cowery Triton’s trumpet periwinkle

Class Polyplacophora Chitins

Class Bivalvia

Class Cephalopoda Day octopus

Class Cephalopoda

Octopus Intelligence

Mimic octopus from Indonesia
flatfish Sea snake lionfish

Blue-ringed octopus Highly venomous
The brilliantly colored blue ringed octopus (Hapalochlaena lunulata) hunts using a venom so powerful it can kill a human Highly venomous

Phylum Arthropoda

Phylogeny of Arthropods
Arthropoda Annelids (worms) Onychophorans (worms w/legs) Chelicerates (spiders) Crustaceans (lobsters) Insects (butterflies) Trilobites (extinct) Worm-like Ancestor

Phylum Arthropoda Insects, crabs, spiders, barnacles
Most species; 80% are insects Hard chitin exoskeleton (must shed to grow) Circulatory system with blood, heart 10,000,000? species

Trilobites Existed mya

Chelicerates Horseshoe crab Pycnogonida

Crustacea brine shrimp ostracod copepods mantis shrimps barnacles

Crustacea Yellow spotted guard crab Hawaiian cleaner shrimp
Spiny lobster Anemone carrying hermit crab Banded coral shrimp

Phylum Echinodermata Class Astroidae Class Ophiuroidae Class
Echinoidae Class Holothuroidae Sea stars Brittle stars Sea urchins Sea cucumbers Class Crinoidae Crinoids

Phylum Echinodermata No circulatory system No respiratory system
Excretion (N elimination) by diffusion Simple nervous system, no brain Water-vascular system

Phylum Echinodermata Water Vascular System
Tube feet & associated plumbing Used for walking, clinging to substrate & holding food

Class Echinoidea: sea urchins
Slate pencil urchin Collector urchin Echinometra mathaei Echinothrix calamaris Colobocentrotus atratus

Class Holothuroidea: Sea Cucumbers
Polyplectana kerfersteninii Holothuria atra

Class Asteroidea: Sea Stars
Linckia sp. Acanthaster planci

Class Ophiuroidea: Brittle Stars

Class Crinoidea: Feather Stars

Classification Phylum Chordata Subphylum Urochordata Subphylum
Cephalochordata Subphylum Vertebrata lancets Agnathans Fish Sharks tetrapods tunicates

Chordate Characteristics

Subphylum Urochordata tunicate

Subphylum Cephalochordata lancet

Hagfish Class Agnatha Subphylum Vertebrata What do they do?
For a long time, people thought of hagfish as scavengers and parasites, probably due to their habit or burrowing into dead or dying animals and eating them from the inside out. In fact, most of their diet is made up of marine worms and other invertebrates. Scientists used to think the hagfish looked primitive as a result of the loss of characteristics often associated with being a parasite. Now common belief is that hagfish just haven't needed to change for the last couple of hundred million years. Now that's a successful body plan and lifestyle! Another ability that had won fame for hagfish is the mass amounts of slime almost instantly secreted as a defense mechanism. Where are they found? Hagfish can be found in the chilly waters of the antitropical north and south. They tend to live on and in muddy sea floors in very dense groups (up to 15,000 in an area). Because females tend to produce large eggs in small numbers, their population sizes suggest a low death rate. One very useful trick hagfish have developed is the ability to tie themselves in knots, and be able to slide in and out of this knot. This can be used to escape predators, to clean themselves of slime, and to work their way into a carcass. This picture shows: A) knotting; this movement is used to clean slime off the body; B) escaping from capture using knotting, a very powerful motion; C) pulling on food by knotting They can also sneeze to unclog their nostrils of their own slime. Hagfish don't really have jaws. Instead they have two pairs of rasps on top of a tongue. They pull meat into their mouths with the tongue, then tear it off the prey with the rasps. Newly hatched hagfish look just like the adults, but have both male and female sex organs. When they mature, they will be either male or female, but have the ability to change from one to the other if the population structure demands it. Although hagfish have a partial skull, they have no back bone, so are not true vertebrates. What skeleton they do have is made of cartilage. How are they used by people? Yes, humans will find a way to exploit even these seemingly useless and repulsive animals. In Korea, almost 5 million pounds of hagfish meat are consumed each year. Hagfish skin is processed into "eelskin" boots, bags, wallets, purses, and other products. Overfishing in Asia has decimated their local hagfish stocks, so the Asian hagfish fishery has turned its eyes towards North America, where these "slime eels" are considered a worthless bycatch. It could mean a boost of over $2 million to the local fisheries, but care must be taken not to damage these stocks as well. Hagfish may not be pretty in most people's eyes, but they serve a purpose and are slow to reproduce. It would take them a long time to recover from over-harvesting. Who can tell what removing them from the local food web would do? Phylogenetics amongst species (for hard core scientists): There are about 20 species of hagfish divided into four genera (Myxine, Neomyxine, Paramyxine, and Eptatretus). These four groups make a sort of evolutionary continuum with regards to external traits. For example, the Myxine and Neomyxine are considered more advanced than the latter two for several reasons: They have a single pair of common external gill openings. The latter two have two minute separate gill openings (considered primitive). Paramyxine's openings are closer together than Eptatretus' so Paramyxine is considered more closely related to the first two. The eyes in Myxine and Neomyxine are smaller than those of the other two, suggesting a less primitive condition by an adaptation to the dark environment favoured my hagfish. Hagfish

Subphylum Vertebrata Class Agnatha lamprey

Class Chondrichthyes Characteristics Sharks, skates, rays, chimera
Posses jaws with teeth, cartilaginous skeleton, paired fins Scales (denticles) have same origin and composition as teeth Possesses 5-7 gills Spiral valve intestine Ureoosmotic strategy Lateral line No swim bladder Heterocercal tail Relatively unchanged (480 mybp)

Subphylum Vertebrata Class Chondrichthyes

Characteristics Class Osteichthyes
Posses jaws with teeth, bony skeleton, paired fins 4 paired gill arches covered by operculum Intestine- simple, no spiral valve Swim bladder Lateral line Homocercal tail Scales- cycloid, ctenoid

Class Osteichthyes 680 species of fish in the islands' waters. About 30% of these fish are endemic to the area .

White mouthed morey Achilles tang trumpetfish Domino damsel
Trigger (Humu) White mouthed morey Porcupine Dwarf moray Achilles tang trumpetfish

Returns to water to breed Metamorphosis Some toxic
Class Amphibia Characteristics Cold blooded Returns to water to breed Metamorphosis Some toxic Estivation-dry and hot Hibernation- cold 3,500 species

Class Amphibia Rana cancrivora

3 chambered heart (except crocks)
Class Reptilia Characteristics Cold blooded Have scales Amniotic egg Dry skin 3 chambered heart (except crocks) 6,500 species

Class Reptilia Saltwater crocodile Marine iguana Marine turtle
Sea snake

Warm blooded Feathers and wings Hollow bones Horny bill
Class Aves Characteristics Warm blooded Feathers and wings Hollow bones Horny bill Lungs have air sacks Hard egg shell

Class Aves

Warm blooded Have fur or hair Suckle young 3 middle ear bones
Class Mammalia Characteristics Warm blooded Have fur or hair Suckle young 3 middle ear bones A Guide to characteristics of Class Mammalia The Class Mammalia is well represented in Southern Africa. There are 293 species of land mammals and 37 species of marine mammals in the Southern African subregion. That is 330 of the around 5000 mammal species found on Earth! Class Mammalia -- all mammals share three characteristics not found in other animals: 3 middle ear bones; hair; and the production of milk by modified sweat glands called mammary glands. Mammals hear sounds after they are transmitted from the outside world to their inner ears by a chain of three bones, the malleus, incus, and stapes. Two of these, the malleus and incus, are derived from bones involved in jaw articulation in most other vertebrates. Mammals have hair. Adults of some species lose most of their hair, but hair is present at least during some phase of the ontogeny of all species. Mammalian hair, made of a protein called keratin, serves at least four functions. First, it slows the exchange of heat with the environment (insulation). Second, specialized hairs (whiskers or "vibrissae") have a sensory function, letting the owner know when it is in contact with an object in its external environment. These hairs are often richly innervated and well-supplied with muscles that control their position. Third, through their color and pattern, hairs affect the appearance of a mammal. They may serve to camouflage, to announce the presence of especially good defense systems (for example, the conspicuous color pattern of a skunk is a warning to predators), or to communicate social information (for example, threats, such as the erect hair on the back of a wolf; sex, such as the different colors of male and female capuchin monkeys; presence of danger, such as the white underside of the tail of a whitetailed deer). Fourth, hair provides some protection, either simply by providing an additional protective layer (against abrasion or sunburn, for example) or by taking on the form of dangerous spines that deter predators (porcupines, spiny rats, others). Mammals feed their newborn young with milk, a substance rich in fats and protein that is produced by modified sweat glands called mammary glands. These glands, which take a variety of shapes, are usually located on the ventral surface of females along paths that run from the chest region to the groin. They vary in number from two (one right, one left, as in humans) to a dozen or more. Other characteristics found in most mammals include highly differentiated teeth; teeth are replaced just once during an individual's life (this condition is called diphyodonty, and the first set is called "milk teeth); a lower jaw made up of a single bone, the dentary; four-chambered hearts, a secondary palate separating air and food passages in the mouth; a muscular diaphragm separating thoracic and abdominal cavities; highly developed brain; endothermy and homeothermy; separate sexes with the sex of an embryo being determined by the presence of a Y or 2 X chromosomes; and internal fertilization. The Class Mammalia includes around 5000 species placed in 26 orders (systematists do not yet agree on the exact number or on how some orders are related to others). Mammals can be found in all continents and seas. In part because of their high metabolic rates (associated with homeothermy and endothermy), they often play an ecological role that seems disproportionately large compared to their numerical abundance. Subclass Prototheria - Not represented in southern Africa Order Monotremata -- Monotremes: platypus and echidnas Subclass Metatheria (marsupials) - Not represented in southern Africa Order Didelphimorphia Order Paucituberculata Order Microbiotheria Order Dasyuromorphia Order Peramelemorphia Order Notoryctemorphia Order Diprotodontia Subclass Eutheria (placentals) Order Insectivora -- Insectivores: shrews, moles, hedgehogs, tenrecs, etc. Order Macroscelidea -- elephant shrews Order Scandentia -- tree shrews Order Dermoptera -- colugos Order Chiroptera --bats Order Primates --primates Order Xenarthra -- edentates; sloths, armadillos and anteaters Order Pholidota -- pangolins Order Lagomorpha -- rabbits and pikas Order Rodentia -- rodents Order Cetacea -- whales, dolphins, and porpoises Order Carnivora -- carnivores Order Tubulidentata -- aardvark Order Proboscidea -- elephants Order Hyracoidea -- hyraxes Order Sirenia -- dugongs and manatees Order Perissodactyla -- horses, rhinos, tapirs Order Artiodactyla -- antelope, giraffe, camels, pigs, hippos, etc.

Class Mammalia Whales & Dolphins Polar bear Sea otter Seals & sealions manatee Dugong

Inquiry What is the difference between a prokaryote and eukaryote?
Which kingdoms are prokaryote and which are eukaryote? Define a species. How do fungus feed? What are some key characteristics of mammals? Which class of cnideria are true jellyfish? Name four mollusk classes.

Classification.

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