1. Optimization Methods Unconstrained optimization of an objective function F Deterministic, gradient-based methods Running a PDE: will cover later in course Gradient-based (ascent/descent) methods Stochastic methods Simulated annealing Theoretically but not practically interesting Evolutionary (genetic) algorithms Multiscale methods Mean field annealing, graduated nonconvexity, etc. Constrained optimization Lagrange multipliers

2. Our Assumptions for Optimization Methods With objective function F(p) Dimension(p) >> 1and frequently quite large Evaluating F at any p is very expensive Evaluating D 1 F at any p is very, very expensive Evaluating D 2 F at any p is extremely expensive True in most image analysis and graphics applications

3. Order of Convergence for Iterative Methods |  i+1 | = k|  i |  in limit  is order of convergence The major factor in speed of convergence N steps of method has order of convergence  N Thus issue is linear convergence (  =1) vs. superlinear convergence (  >1)

4. Ascent/Descent Methods At maximum, D 1 F (i.e.,  F) =0. Pick direction of ascent/descent Find approximate maximum in that direction: two possibilities –Calculate stepsize that will approximately reach maximum –In search direction, find actual max within some range

5. Gradient Ascent/Descent Methods Direction of ascent/descent is  D 1 F. If you move to optimum in that direction, next direction will be orthogonal to this one –Guarantees zigzag –Bad behavior for narrow ridges (valleys) of F –Linear convergence

6. Newton and Secant Ascent/Descent Methods for F(p) We are solving D 1 F=0 –Use Newton or secant equation solution method to solve Newton to solve f(p)=0 is p i+1 = p i – D 1 f (p i ) -1 p i Newton –Move from p to p-(D 2 F) -1 D 1 F Is direction of ascent/descent is gradient direction D 1 F? –Methods that ascend/descend in D 1 f (gradient) directionare inferior Really direction of ascent/descent is direction of (D 2 F) -1 D 1 F Also gives you step size in that direction Secant –Same as Newton except replace D 2 F and D 1 F by discrete approximations to them from this and last n iterates

7. Conjugate gradient method Preferable to gradient descent/ascent methods Two major aspects –Successive directions for descent/ascent are conjugate: = 0 in limit for convex F If trueat all steps (quadratic F), convergence in n-1 steps, with n=dim(p) Improvements available using more previous directions –In search direction, find actual max/min within some range Quadratic convergence depends on =0, i.e., F a local minimum in the h i direction References –Shewchuk, An Intro. to the CGM w/o the Agonizing Pain (http://www-2.cs.cmu.edu/~quake-papers/painless-conjugate- gradient.pdf) –Numerical Recipes –Polak, Computational Methods in Optimization, Ac. Press

8. Conjugate gradient method issues Preferable to gradient descent/ascent methods Must find a local minimum in the search direction Will have trouble with –Bumpy objective functions –Extremely elongated minimum/maximum regions

9. Smooth objective function to put initial estimate on hillside of its global optimum –E.g., by using larger scale measurements Find its optimum Iterate –Decrease scale of objective function –Use prev. optimum as starting point for new optimization Multiscale Gradient-Based Optimization To avoid local optima

10. General methods –Graduated non-convexity [Blake & Zisserman, 1987] –Mean field annealing [Bilbro, Snyder, et al, 1992] In image analysis –Vary degree of globality of geometric representation Multiscale Gradient-Based Optimization Example Methods

11. To optimize F(p) over p subject to g i (p)=0, i=1, 2, …, N, with p having n parameters –Create function F(p)+  i i g i (p) –Find critical point for it over p and Solve D 1 p,  F(p)+  i i g i (p)]=0 –n+N equations in n+N unknowns –N of the equations are just g i (p)=0, i=1, 2, …, N The critical point will need to be an optimum w.r.t. p Optimization under Constraints by Lagrange Multiplier(s)

12. Stochastic Methods Needed when objective function is bumpy or many variables or hard to compute gradient of objective function