1. Type Checking in Cool Alex Aiken (Modified by Mooly Sagiv)

2. Outline What is type checking Simple type rules Self_Type Implementation

3. Types What is a type –Varies from language to language Consensus –A set of values –A set of operations Classes –One instantiation of the modern notion of types

4. Why do we need type systems? Consider assembly code –add $r1, $r2, $r3 What are the types of $r1, $r2, $r3?

5. Types and Operations Certain operations are legal for values of each type –It does not make sense to add a function pointer and an integer in C –It does make sense to add two integers –But both have the same assembly language implementation!

6. Type Systems A language’s type system specifies which operations are valid for which types The goal of type checking is to ensure that operations are used with the correct types –Enforces intended interpretation of values because nothing else will!

7. Type Checking Overview Three kinds of languages –Statically typed: (Almost) all checking of types is done as part of compilation Semantic Analysis C, Java, Cool, ML –Dynamically typed: Almost all checking of types is done as part of program execution Code generation Scheme –Untyped No type checking (Machine Code)

8. Type Wars Competing views on static vs. dynamic typing Static typing proponents say: –Static checking catches many programming errors –Prove properties of your code –Avoids the overhead of runtime type checks Dynamic typing proponents say –Static type systems are restrictive –Rapid prototyping difficult with types systems –Complicates the programming language and the compiler –Compiler optimizations can hide costs

9. Type Wars (cont.) In practice, most code is written in statically typed languages with escape mechanisms –Unsafe casts in C Java –union in C It is debatable whether this compromise represents the best or worst of both worlds

10. Types Outline Types concepts in Cool Notation for type rules –Logical rules of inference Cool type rules General properties of type systems

11. Cool Types The types are –Class Names –SELF_TYPE The user declares types for identifiers The semantic analysis infers types for expressions –Every expression has a unique type

12. Type Checking and Type Inference Type checking –The process of verifying fully typed programs Type inference –The process of filling in missing type information Different terms used interchangeably

13. Rules of Inference We have seen two examples of formal notions specifying parts of the compiler –Regular expressions –Context-free grammars Appropriate formalisms for static type checking –Syntax directed translations –Attribute grammars –Logical rules of inference

14. Why Rules of Inference? Inference rules have the form: –“If Hypothesis is true, then conclusion is true” Type checking computes via reasoning –“If E1 and E2 have certain types, then E1+E2 have certain type” Rules of inference are compact notation of “If-Then” statements

15. From English to an inference rule [Easy to read with practice] Start with a simplified system and gradually add features Building blocks –Symbol  is ‘and’ –Symbol  is ‘if then’ –Symbol x:T is ‘x has type T’

16. From English to an inference rule(2 ) If e1 has type Int and e2 has type Int, then e1 + e2 has type Int (e1 has type Int  e2 has type Int)  e1 +e2 has type Int (e1: Int  e2: Int)  e1+e2: Int

17. From English to an inference rule(3 ) The statement (e1: Int  e2: Int)  e1+e2: Int is a special case of Hypothesis 1 ...  Hypothesis n  Conclusion This is an inference rule

18. Notation for Inference Rules By tradition inference rules are written  Hypothesis 1 ...  Hypothesis n Conclusion Cool type rules have hypothesis and conclusion  e: T  means “it is provable that...”

19. Two Rules i is an integer  i : Int [Int] de1 : Int de2 : Int  e1+e2 : Int [Add]

20. Type Rules (cont.) These rules give templates describing how to type integers and + expressions By filling the templates, we can produce complete typings for expressions

21. Example 1 +2 1 is an integer  1 : Int [Int] 2 is an integer  2: Int [Int]  1+2: Int [Add]

22. Soundness A type system is sound if –whenever  e : T –Then e evaluates to a value of type T We only want sound rules –But some sound rules are better than others: 1 is an integer  1 : Object [Strange]

23. Type Checking Proofs Type checking proves facts e: T –Proof is on structure of the AST –Proof has the shape of the AST –One type rule is used for each AST node If the type rule used for a node e: –Hypotheses are the proofs of e’s subexpressions –Conclusion is the type of e Bottom up pass over the AST

24. Rules for Constants  false : Bool [Bool] s is a string constant  s: String [String]

25. Rules for New new T produces an object of type T –Ignore SELF_TYPE for now...  new T: T [New]

26. Two More Rules  e: Bool   e: Bool [Not]  e1: Bool  e2: T  while e1 loop e2 pool: Object [Loop]

27. A Problem What is the type of a variable reference The local structure rules does not carry enough information to give x a type x is an identifier  x: ? [Var]

28. A Solution Put more information in the rules A type environment gives types for free variables –A type environment is a function from ObjectIdentifiers to Types –Symbol table –A variable is free in an expression if it is not defined within the expression

29. Type Environments Let O be a function from ObjectIdentifiers to Types The sentence O  e: T is read: under the assumption that variables have the types given by O, it is provable that e has the type T

30. Modified Rules i is an integer O  i : Int [Int] O  e1 : Int O  e2 : Int O  e1+e2 : Int [Add]

31. New Rules O(x)=T O  x: T [Var]

32. Let Rule O(T 0 /x)  e 1 : T 1 O  let x: T 0 in e 1 : T 1 [Let-No-Init] O[T/y] means O modified to return T on argument y Enforces a variable scope

33. Notes The type environment gives types to free identifiers in the current scope The type environment is passed down the AST from the root to the leaves Types are computed up the AST from the leaves towards the root

34. Let Rule with Initialization O  e 0 : T 0 O(T 0 /x)  e 1 : T 1 O  let x: T 0  e 0 in e 1 : T 1 [Let-Init] Weak rule

35. Subtyping Define a relation  on classes –X  X –X  Y if X inherits from Y –X  Z if X  Y and Y  Z O  e 0 : T T  T 0 O(T 0 /x)  e 1 : T 1 O  let x: T 0  e 0 in e 1 : T 1 [Let-Init]

36. Assignment Both rules are sound but more programs typecheck with the second one More uses of subtyping O (Id) = T 0 O  e 1 : T 1 T 1  T 0 O  Id  e 1 : T 1 [Assign]

37. Initialized Attributes Let O c (x) = T for all attributes x:T in class C Attribute initialization is similar to let, except the scope of names O c (Id)= T 0 O c  e 1 : T 1 T 1  T 0 O c  id T 0  e 1 : T 1 ; [Attr-Init]

38. If-Then-Else Consider: if e0 then e1 else e2 The result can be either e1 or e2 The type is either e1’s type or e2’ type The best we can do is the smallest supertype larger then the type of e1 and e2

39. Least Upper Bounds lub(X, Y) is the least upper bound of X and Y (denoted by Z) –X  Z and Y  Z Z is upper bound –X  Z’ and Y  Z’  Z  Z’ Z is the least upper bound In Cool, the least upper bound of two types is their least common ancestor in the inheritance tree

40. If-Then-Else-Revisited O c  e 0 :Bool O  e 1 : T 1 O  e 2 : T 2 O  if e 0 then e 1 else e 2 : lub(T 1, T 2 ) [If-Then-Else]

41. Case The rule for case expressions takes lub over all branches O  e 0 :T 0 O[T 1 /x 1 ]  e 1 : T’ 1... O[T n /x n ]  e n : T’ n O  case e 0 of x 1 : T 1 ;... ; x n :T n esac : lub(T’ 1,.., T’ n ) [Case]

42. Method Dispatch There is a problem with type checking method calls We need information about the formal parameters of and return type O  e 0 :T 0 O  e 1 : T 1... O  e n : T n O  e 0.f(e 1,,,,,, e n ): ? [Dispatch]

43. Notes on dispatch In Cool, the method and object identifiers live in different name spaces –A method foo and an object foo can coexist in the same scope –In the type rules this is reflected by a separate mapping M for method signatures M(C, f) = (T 1,..., T n, T n+1 ) means that in class C there is a method f f(X 1 :T 1,..., X n :T n ): T n+1

44. The Dispatch Rule Revisited O, M  e 0 :T 0 O, M  e 1 : T 1... O, M  e n : T n M(T 0, f) = (T’ 1,..., T’ n, T’ n+1 ) T i  T’ i for 1  i  n O  e 0.f(e 1,,,,,, e n ):T’ n+1 [Dispatch]

45. Static Dispatch A variation of normal dispatch The method is found in the class explicitly named by the programmer The inferred type of the dispatch expression must conform to the specified type

46. Static Dispatch O, M  e 0 :T 0 O, M  e 1 : T 1... O, M  e n : T n T 0  T M(T 0, f) = (T’ 1,..., T’ m, T’ n+1 ) T i  T’ i for 1  i  n O  e 0 @T.f(e 1,,,,,, e n ):T’ n+1 [StaticDispatch]

47. The Method Environment The method environment must be added to all rules In most cases, M is passed but not actually used O, M  e1 : Int O, M  e2 : Int O, M  e1+e2 : Int [Add]

48. More Environments For some cases involving SELF_TYPE, we need to know the class in which an expression appears The full environment for COOL –A mapping O gives types to Object Id’s –A mapping M giving types to methods –The current C

49. Sentences The form of a sentence in the logic is O, M, C  e : C O, M, C  e1 : Int O, M, C  e2 : Int O, M, C  e1+e2 : Int [Add]

50. Effectiveness of Static Type Systems Static type systems detect common errors But some correct programs are disallowed –Some argue for dynamic checking instead –Other argue for more expressive type systems But more expressive type systems are more complex

51. Dynamic and Static Types The dynamic type of an object is the class that is used in the new expression –a runtime notion –Even languages that are statically typed have dynamic types The static type of an expression captures all the dynamic types that the expression could have –A compile-time notion

52. Dynamic and static types In early type systems the set of static types correspond directly to the dynamic types Soundness theorem: for all expressions E dynamic_type(E) = static_type(E) Gets more complicated in advanced type systems

53. Dynamic and Static Types in Cool A variable of static type A can hold the value of static type B if B  A class A {... } class B inherits A {... } class Main ( x: A  new A ;... x  new B ; }

54. Dynamic and Static Types Soundness of the Cool type system: –  E. dynamic_type(E)  static_type(E) Why is this ok –All operations that can be used on an object of type C can be also used on an object of type C’  C –Subclasses only add behavior (attributes or methods) –Methods can be redefined but with the same type!

55. An Example class Count { i : Int  0 ; Inc() Count { { i  i + 1 ; self ; } } ; class Stock inherits Count { name: String ; }; class Main { Stock a  (new Stock). inc();... a.name.. };

56. SELF_TYPE to the Rescue We will extend the type system Insight –Inc returns “self” –The return value has type as “self” –Any subtype of Count Introduce the Keyword SELF_TYPE to use for return value of such functions –Need to modify the typing rules

57. An Example (revisited) class count { i : Int  0 ; Inc(): Self_Type { { i  i + 1 ; self ; } } ; class Stock inherits Count { name: String ; }; class Main { Stock a  (new Stock). inc();... a.name.. };

58. Type Systems The rules in this lecture are Cool-specific A lot of theory about type systems General themes –Type rules are defined on the structure of expressions –Types of variables are modeled by an environment

59. One Pass Type Checking COOL type checking can be implemented in a single traversal over the AST Type environment is passed down the tree –From parent to child Types are passed up the tree –From child to parent

60. Implementing Type Systems O, M, C  e1 : Int O, M, C  e2 : Int O, M, C  e1+e2 : Int [Add] TypeCheck(Environment, e1, e2) { T1 = TypeCheck(Environment, e1); T2 = TypeCheck(Environment, e2); check T1 == T2 == Int; return INT’ }