1. Lecture 31 Electrical Instrumentation

2. Lecture 32 Electrical Instrumentation Electrical instrumentation is the process of acquiring data about one or more physical quantities of interest using electrical sensors and instruments. This data may be used for diagnostics, analysis, design, or to control a system.

3. Lecture 33 Instrumentation Examples Every engineering discipline uses electrical instrumentation to collect and analyze data. The following examples are illustrative of the different types of sensors and instrumentation that different engineering disciplines use.

4. Lecture 34 Strain Measurements Strain gauge

5. Lecture 35 Non-destructive Testing Ultrasound transducer

6. Lecture 36 Automotive Sensors Oxygen Sensor Airflow Sensor Water Temperature Oil Pressure Accelerometer CO Sensor

7. Lecture 37 Biomedical Ultrasound Transducer

8. Lecture 38 What other examples can you think of?

9. Lecture 39 A Typical Instrumentation System Sensor Amplifier A/D Converter Computer

10. Lecture 310 Instrumentation System Sensor-converts the measured value into an electrically useful value. Amplifier-”conditions” the signal from the sensor. A/D Converter-converts the signal into a digital format. Computer-processes, displays, and records the signal.

11. Lecture 311 Sensor The output of a sensor is proportional to the quantity of interest. The sensor output may be a –voltage or current (temperature, pressure) –resistance (strain gauge) –frequency (accelerometer)

12. Lecture 312 Amplifier The output of the amplifier is (usually) a voltage. The gain of the amplifier is set so that the voltage falls between lower and upper limits (for example, -10V to 10V).

13. Lecture 313 A/D Converter Analog-to-digital conversion consists of two operations: –Sampling: measuring the voltage signal at equally spaced points in time. –Quantization: approximating a voltage using 8 or 16 bits.

14. Lecture 314 Instrumentation Issues Noise Signal bandwidth Sampling Amplifier characteristics Feedback Real-time processing Control systems

15. Lecture 315 Noise Signal Signal + Noise

16. Lecture 316 Sources of Noise Thermal noise caused by the random motion of charged particles in the sensor and the amplifier. Electromagnetic noise from electrical equipment (e.g. computers) or communication devices. Shot noise from quantum mechanical events.

17. Lecture 317 Effects of Noise Reduces accuracy and repeatability of measurements. Introduces distortion in sound signals. Introduces errors in control systems.

18. Lecture 318 What to Do? How can we eliminate or reduce the undesirable effects of noise? Grounding/shielding electrical connections Filtering (smoothing) Averaging several measurements

19. Lecture 319 Signal Bandwidth Conceptually, bandwidth is related to the rate at which a signal changes: High BW Low BW

20. Lecture 320 Bandwidth and Sampling A higher bandwidth requires more samples/second: High BW Low BW

21. Lecture 321 Bandwidth Limitations Every component in the instrumentation system has bandwidth limitations: Sensors do not respond immediately to changes in the environment. The amplifier output does not change immediately in response to changes in the input. The A/D converter sampling rate is limited.

22. Lecture 322 Effects of BW Limitations Sensor Output Amplifier Output

23. Lecture 323 Amplifier Characteristics Amplifiers are characterized in terms of attributes such as: Gain Bandwidth and/or frequency response Linearity Harmonic distortion Input and output impedance

24. Lecture 324 Op Amps One commonly used type of amplifier is the Operational Amplifier (OpAmp). Op Amps have differential inputs: output voltage is the amplified difference of two input voltages. Op Amps have very large gains (>10 3 ).

25. Lecture 325 Op Amps (cont.) Most op amp circuits use negative feedback. Op amp circuits can be designed to: –Provide voltage gain or attenuation. –Convert current to voltage. –Integrate or differentiate. –Filter out noise or interference.

26. Lecture 326 Feedback Often, sensors measure quantities associated with systems. The sensor output is used to control the system in a desired manner.

27. Lecture 327 Example: Industrial Process Control In many manufacturing processes (integrated circuits, for examle) temperatures must be closely controlled. Feedback can be used to maintain a constant temperature.

28. Lecture 328 Temperature Control The Control System sets the current supplied to the heating elements in the furnace to keep the material temperature at the desired value. Desired Temperature Control System Furnace and Material Temperature Sensor

29. Lecture 329 A car cruise control is a feedback system. How does it work?

30. Lecture 330 Benefits of Feedback Provides stability with respect to changes in system parameter values. Helps to obtain a (nearly) linear response from non-linear components. Can be used to change the characteristics of a system under control.