1. How to Calculate Your Grade
You have completed 500 out of 700 total points
Add together:
Lecture exam 1
Lecture exam 2
Lab exam 1
Lab exam 2
Average of your 7 best quizzes (drop lowest)
Divide by 500
REMEMBER:
You must have at least a “C” = 68 in both lab and lecture separately to pass course

2. How to Calculate the Number of points you need to pass
You need a total of 476 out of 700 points to get a C
Take the total number of points you just calculated (the sum of 4 exams and quiz average) and subtract it from 476
The number you have is the total number of points you need
If you divide that number by 2, you will see the approximate grade you’ll need on lab exam 3 and lecture exam 3.
REMEMBER: the rules from previous page apply
Have to have at least C in lecture and lab separately

3. Systems: Urinary and Digestive
Organs of the Abdomen
Systems: Urinary and Digestive

4. Urinary System Kidneys Ureters Urinary Bladder Urethra Purify blood
Drain urine from kidney to bladder
Urinary Bladder
Store urine
Urethra
Drain urine from bladder to outside body
pg 5

5. Kidneys: major excretory organs
Remove toxins, metabolic waste, excess H2O, ions
Urea, uric acid, creatinin
Regulates volume + makeup of blood
Maintains balance between
Salts and water
Acids and bases

6. Kidneys: Gross Anatomy
Located superior lumbar region
Posterior abdominal wall (T12-L3)
Retroperitoneal
Hilus
Adrenal Gland: superomedial to kidney
Renal Artery + Vein
Innervation: branches of renal plexus
pg 648

7. Kidneys: Gross Anatomy
Renal Capsule
Layer of tough CT
Maintains shape
Prevents spread of infection
Adipose Capsule
External to renal cap
Perirenal fat
Surrounded by fascia
Keeps in place, cushions
Pararenal Fat
External to adipose cap
pg 649

8. Kidney: Internal Anatomy
Cortex
Superficial
Light, granular
Part of functional unit
Medulla
Deep layer
Darker
Pyramid-cone shape
Contain collecting tubule collect urine
Pg 650

9. Kidney: Internal Anatomy
Medullary Pyramid
Base: against cortex
Apex: inward
Papilla = tip
Drips urine into minor calyx
Minor Calyx (calices)
Cup-shaped divisions of major calices
Surround papilla of pyramid
Major Calyx (calices)
Larger cup-shaped branches of renal pelvis
Renal Pelvis
Flat expansion of ureter
Collects urine
Pg 650

10. Kidney: Microscopic Anatomy
Functional Unit
Uriniferous Tubule
Nephron
Collecting tubule
Waste is filtered out
Waste products formed
Located in lobes of kidneys
pg 652

11. Ureters Slender tubes transport urine Run from kidneys to bladder
Retroperitoneal
Continuation of renal pelvis
Enters bladder at oblique angle to prevent backflow
Increased pressure in bladder closes distal end of ureter
Ureters
pg 648

12. Ureters: 3 Layers External: Adventitia Middle: MuscularisCT
Middle: Muscularis
Smooth Muscle
Inner Longitudinal
Outer Circular
External longitudinal (on distal third)
Peristalsis
Inner: Mucosa
Transitional epithelium

13. Bladder Muscular sac store and expel urine Location
On pelvic floor
Posterior
Pubic symphysis
Anterior
Males = rectum
Females = vagina, uterus
Collapses + Expands
Full  into abdominal cav
Emptystays in pelvic cav
Supplied by branches of internal iliac arteries + veins
Innervated = branches of hypogastric plexus
Bladder
pg 648

14. Bladder: Internal Anatomy
trigone
pg 662
3 Layers
Mucosa = transitional epithelium & lamina propria
Detrusor Muscle: smooth muscle
Inner/Outer longitudinal, Middle circular
Fibrous Adventitia = CT
Parietal peritoneum on superior surface instead

15. Urethra Drains urine from bladder to outside Female = short tube
Males = long tube
Prostatic, Membranous, Spongy (penile) portions
Also carries semen
Internal Urethral Sphincter
Between bladder + urethra
Thickening of detrusor (smooth muscle)
External Urethral Sphincter
Within urogenital diaphragm
Skeletal muscle = voluntary control urination
External Urethral Orifice
Males = end of penile urethra
Females = anterior to vaginal opening, posterior to clitoris

16. Urethra: Female vs. Male
pg 662

17. Micturition = Urination
Emptying bladder
Stretch receptors in bladder respond when bladder full
Parasympathetic signals detrusor muscle to contract and internal urinary sphincter to open (also inhibits sympathetic pathways that would prevent urination)
Other brain receptors can inhibit urination by relaxing detrusor, and keep external urinary sphincter closed
Voluntary contraction of abdominal wall muscles increases abdominal pressure
Voluntary relaxation of external urethral sphincter
See pg 663

18. Digestion System Alimentary Canal Accessory Organs Mouth Pharynx
Esophagus
Stomach
Small Intestine
Large Intestine
Accessory Organs
Teeth, Tongue
Salivary Glands
Gallbladder
Liver
Pancreas
pg 5

19. Food Processing Activities
Ingestion: taking food into mouth
Propulsion: food moves through gut
Swallowing + Peristalsis
Mechanical Digestion: breakdown of food
Chewing, Churning, Segmentation
Chemical Digestion: chemical breakdown
Enzymes
Absorption: Digestive end products into blood
Defecation: Removal of waste products

20. Alimentary Canal Wall Internal = Mucosa + Submucosa
Epithelium
Lamina propria:
contains MALT: mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue
Muscularis mucosae
Submucosa = CT w/elastic fibers, nerves, vessels
Middle = Muscularis Externa
Inner circular layer
Outer longitudinal layer
Creates sphincters
Outer = Serosa or Adventitia

21. Innervation of Alimentary Canal
2 Plexuses: Myenteric & Submucosal
Parasympathetic, Sympathetic, Visceral Sensory fibers
Enteric Nervous System
100 million neurons in walls of alimentary canal = internal system
Within above plexuses
Independent reflex arcs
Controls glandular secretion, peristalsis, segmentation
Autonomic Nervous System speeds up or slows activity controlled by enteric system

22. Stomach “J” shape Cardiac Region Fundus (“dome”) Body Pylorus
Junction esophagus
Cardiac sphincter (Gastroesophageal)
Fundus (“dome”)
Under diaphragm
Body
Large, middle part
Pylorus
Distal portion
Pyloric sphincter
Greater Curvature
Lesser Curvature
Stomach
Pg 624

23. Internal Anatomy of Stomach
Mucosa
Rugae: mucosal folds allow expansion
Many intrinsic glands
Goblet cells
Gastric glands
Typical Submucosa
Muscularis externa
Oblique layer
Circular layer
Pyloric sphincter
Longitudinal layer
Serosa
pg 624

24. Function of Stomach Temporary storage of chyme Breakdown begins
Churn, segmentation
Pepsin proteins
Absorption
H2O, electrolytes
Alcohol, other drugs
Stays about 4 hours
Hold from1.5-4 liters

25. Small Intestine: Parts + Functions
Duodenum = proximal (5%)
Jejunum = middle (~40%)
Ileum = distal (~55%)
Majority of enzymatic digestion
Bile: emulsifier (gallbladder, liver)
Enzymes (pancreas)
Almost all nutrient absorption
Segmentation
Moves chyme around to increase contact with intestine walls
Food takes about 3-6 hours to move through
meters

26. Small Intestine: Internal Features
Intestinal flora: produce vitamin K
Simple columnar epithelium w/many modifications for absorption
Lymph tissue in submucosa
Muscularis externa has 2 layers
Some parasympathetic innervation from vagus
Arterial supply:
Superior mesenteric
Rt (cranial) pancreaticoduodenal

27. Small Intestine: Modifications of epithelium for absorption
Length
Increase surface area
Plicae circularis
Transverse ridges of mucosa
Slow movement of chyme
Villi
Move chyme, increase contact
Contain lacteals: remove fat
Microvilli:
Modifications decrease distally
pg 629

28. Small Intestine Duodenum: Jejunum & Ileum: short, straight
Mostly retroperitoneal
Jejunum & Ileum:
highly coiled
Fewer modifications
Hang by mesentery in peritoneal cavity
Mesentery Arcades
Arteries + veins
Nerves
Store fat
Pg 614

29. Large Intestine Cecum Vermiform appendix Colon Rectum Anal Canal
Ascending
Transverse
Descending
Sigmoid
Rectum
Anal Canal
pg 631

30. Large Intestine Functions: Internal Features:
Absorb water and electrolytes
Form, store and expel feces from body
Internal Features:
Intestinal flora
No intestinal villi or modifications for absorption
Many goblet cells
Simple columnar epithelium except lower half of anal canal
Significant Lymph tissue in mucosa & submucosa
Muscularis mucosae has 2 layers
Some parasympathetic innervation from vagus

31. Colon: External Features
Taeniae coli
3 longitudinal strips
thickening of longitudinal muscle
maintain muscle tone
create haustra
Haustra
saclike divisions
Epiploic Appendages
fat-filled pouches
significance unknown
pg 631

32. Cecum + Vermiform Appendix
sac-like, blind pouch
Ileocecal valve
raised edges of mucosa
prevents feces going back into ileum
Vermiform Appendix
same layers
blind tube opens into cecum
masses of lymph tissue
pg 631

33. Colon Ascending colon Transverse colon Descending colon Sigmoid colon
Right side
Hepatic flexure (= right colic flexure)
Transverse colon
Across cavity
Descending colon
Left side
Splenic flexure (= left colic flexure )
Sigmoid colon
Enters pelvis
“S” shape
pg 631

34. Colon: Function Absorb H2O and electrolytes Some digestion by bacteria
Mass Peristaltic Movements (2-3x day)
Moves through in hours
1.5 meters

35. Rectum + Anal Canal Rectum Anal Canal pg 632 descends into pelvis
no teniae coli
longitudinal muscle layer complete
rectal valves
Anal Canal
passes through levator ani muscle
releases mucus to lubricate feces
Internal anal sphincter
involuntary, smooth m.
External anal sphincter
voluntary, skeletal m.
Stratified squamosal epithelium at lower half
pg 632

36. Defecation Reflex Stretching of rectum wall initiates reflex
Spinal cord - parasympathetic signals sigmoid colon + rectum to contract + anal sphincter to relax (involuntary)
If not ready-reflex ends- rectum relaxes
Reflex initiated again until you go!
Contraction of abdominal muscles, levator ani + diaphragm assists defecation (voluntary)

37. Liver Largest gland (3 lbs) Location Highly vascular Some functions
pg 610
Largest gland (3 lbs)
Location
Upper Right Quadrant
Mostly under ribcage
Highly vascular
Some functions
produce bile
pick up glucose
detoxify poison, drugs
make blood proteins
many others
pg 635

38. Liver: External Features
Diaphragmatic surface
Right lobe (larger)
Left lobe
Falciform ligament
Fissure between
Visceral surface
Quadrate lobe
Caudate lobe
Both part of left lobe
pg 635

39. Liver: Visceral Surface
pg 636
Hepatic Vein (into inferior vena cava)
Porta Hepatis
Hepatic Artery (from abdominal aorta )
Hepatic Portal Vein
Carries nutrient-rich blood from stomach + intestines to liver
Portal system = 2 capillary beds!
Hepatic Ducts (carry bile)

40. Gallbladder Muscular sac Between right + quadrate liver lobes
Bile is stored + concentrated
Bile: breaks down fats = emulsification
Bile
Produced by liver
Stored in gallbladder
pg 610

41. Gallbladder continued
Mucosa & lamina propria
Simple columnar epithelium
Expandable mucosal folds
Smooth muscle layer
Thick connective tissue
Covered by serosa in places

42. Bile Ducts Cystic duct Hepatic duct Common Bile duct
carries bile from gallbladder
Hepatic duct
carries bile from liver
Common Bile duct
joins cystic and hepatic
carries bile into duodenum
pg 628

43. Movement of Bile Bile secreted by liver continuously
Hepatopancreatic (Vater) ampulla
common bile + main pancreatic duct meet and enter duodenum
Sphincter of Oddi around it
closed when bile not needed for digestion
Bile then backs up into gallbladder via cystic duct
When needed gallbladder contracts, sphincters open
Movement of Bile
pg 628

44. Pancreas Retroperitoneal Gland Location Exocrine Endocrine
digestive enzymes
Endocrine
hormone insulin
hormone glucagon
Location
curve of duodenum
extends to spleen
pg 639

45. Ducts of Pancreas Main Pancreatic duct Accessory Pancreatic duct
joins common bile duct
enters duodenum
Hepatopancreatic (Vater) ampulla
Accessory Pancreatic duct
enters duodenum in other location
pg 628

46. Spleen Largest lymph organ Highly vascular Function
remove blood-borne antigens (immune)
remove and destroy old/damaged blood cells
stores blood platelets
In fetus: site of hematopoiesis
pg 639

47. Arterial Blood Supply to Abdominal Viscera
All branches of Abdominal Aorta
Anastomoses
Left + Middle colic
Left + Right gastric
Left + Right gastroepiploic
Cranial + Caudal pancreaticoduodenal
Deep Iliac Circumflex + Adrenolumbar
STUDY HAND OUT! MUST KNOW WHAT SUPPLIES WHAT!!

48. Names give hints! Hepato = liver Pancreatico = pancreas
Cystic = gallbladder
Gastro = stomach
Splenic = spleen
Adreno = adrenal gl
Lumbar = lumbar region
Epiploic = membrane-covered
Mesenteric = mesentery
Duodenal = duodenum
Ileo = ileum
Colic = colon
Rectal = rectum