1. Chap 2 Context-Free Languages

2. Context-free Grammars is not regular Context-free grammar : eg. G 1 : A  0A1substitution rules A  Bproduction rules B  # A,B : variables 0,1,# : terminals

3. Derivation: generate 000#111 Parse tree:

4. Def: (context-free grammar) A context-free grammar is a 4-tuple (V, ,R,S) 1. V: a finite set called the variables 2.  : a finite set, disjoint from V, called the terminals 3. R: a finite set of rules 4. S: start symbol A Language of the grammar is

5. Eg : rules

6. Def: A string w is derived ambiguously in context-free grammar G if it has 2 or more leftmost derivations Grammar G is ambiguous if it generates some string ambiguously A language that can only be generated by ambiguous grammars is called inherently ambiguous eg:

7. Chomsky Normal Form Every rule is of the form a : terminal A,B,C : any variables B,C may not be the start variable allow

8. Thm: Any context-free language is generated by a context- free grammar in Chomsky Normal Form

9. Proof: 1. Add a new start symbol : original start symbol 2. Remove  -rule A  , A is NOT the start symbol If is a rule, then add Do so for each occurrence of A If is a rule, we add unless it had been removed Repeat these steps until all  rules not involving the start variable

10. Proof cont.: 3. Handle all unit rules Remove a unit rule For, we add unless it was a removed unit rule. Repeat until all unit rules are removed 4. Replacewith A i : new variables u i : variable or terminal symbol If u i is terminal, add U i  u i ■ u is a string of variables and terminals

11. Eg. Convert the following CFG to Chomsky Normal Form ◆ ◆ Remove B→  ◆ Remove A→  S → ASA|aB A → B|S B → b|  S 0 → S S → ASA|aB A → B|S B → b|  S 0 → S S → ASA|aB|a A → B|S|  B → b S 0 → S S → ASA|aB|a|SA|AS|S A → B|S B → b

12. Eg conti. ◆ Remove unit rule S→ S ◆ Remove S 0 → S ◆ Remove A→ B ◆ Remove A→ S S 0 → S S → ASA|aB|a|SA|AS A → B|S B → b S 0 → ASA|aB|a|SA|AS S → ASA|aB|a|SA|AS A → B|S B → b S 0 → ASA|aB|a|SA|AS S → ASA|aB|a|SA|AS A → b|S B → b S 0 → ASA|aB|a|SA|AS S → ASA|aB|a|SA|AS A → b|ASA|aB|a|SA|AS B → b

13. Eg conti. ◆ S 0 → AA 1 |UB|a|SA|AS S → AA 1 |UB|a|SA|AS A → b| AA 1 |UB|a|SA|AS B → b A 1 → SA U → a

14. Pushdown Automata Finite automata Pushdown automata State control a a b b input State control a a b b input x y z ⋮ stack

15. Def: A pushdown automata is a 6-tuple (Q, , , , q 0, F) where Q, ,  and F are all finite sets, and 1. Q: the set of states 2.  : the input alphabet 3.  : the stack alphabet 4.  : Q×   ×   → P(Q×   ), the transition function 5. q 0 ∈ Q is the start state 6. F ⊆ Q is the set of accept state

16. A PDA M= (Q, , , , q 0, F) accepts input w=w 1 w 2 …w m, where each w i ∈   and sequences of states r 0, r 1,…, r m ∈ Q and strings s 0, s 1,…, s m ∈  * exist that satisfy the next 3 conditions: (s i : stack contents) 1. r 0 =q 0 and s 0 =  2. For i=0,…,m-1, we have (r i+1,b) ∈  (r i, w i+1,a),where s i =at and s i+1 =bt for some a,b ∈   and t ∈  * 3. r m ∈ F atat ⋯ w i+1 ⋯ ⋯ r i btbt ⋯ w i+2 ⋯ ⋯ r i+1

17. Eg: M 1 =(Q, , , , q 1, F ), where Q={q 1, q 2, q 3, q 4 }  ={0,1}  ={0,$} F={q 1,q 4 } Input:01  Stack:0$  0$  0$  q1q1 (q 2,$) q2q2 (q 2,0) (q3,)(q3,) Q3Q3 (q3,)(q3,) (q 4,  ) q4q4

18. Eg conti. a,b → c : reading a from the input it may replace b on the top of the stack with c q1q1 q3q3 q2q2 q4q4 ,  → $0,  → 0 1, 0 →  , $ → 

19. Eg: Show a pushdown automaton that recognizes the language q1q1 q3q3 q4q4 q2q2 q5q5 q6q6 q7q7 ,  → $ ,  →  b, a →  , $ →  c,  →  a,  → a ,  →  b,  →  ,  → , $ →  c, a → 

20. Eg: Give a PDA recognizing the language w R means w written backwards q1q1 q3q3 q2q2 q4q4 ,  → $0,  → 0 1,  → 1 ,  →  0, 0 →  1, 1 →  , $ → 

21. Thm: A language is context-free iff some pushdown automaton recognizes it

22. Proof: (1) If a language is context free, then some PDA recognizes it q start q loop q accept ,  → S$ , A → w for rule A → w a, a →  for terminal a , $ →  q r a,s → xyz ⇒ q q1q1 q2q2 r ,→x,→x ,→y,→y a,s→za,s→z  (q,a,s)=(r,xyz)

23. Proof conti: Q={ q start,q loop,q accept } ∪ E  (q start, ,  )={ (q loop,S$) }  (q loop, , A )={ (q loop, w) | A → w is a rule in R }  (q loop, , $ )={ (q accept,  ) } eg: construct a PDA from the following CFG G S → aTb | b T → Ta|  q start q loop q accept ,  → S$ , $ → ,S → b ,T →  a,a →  b,b →  , S → b ,  → T ,  → a , T → a ,  → T S$S$ aTb$aTb$ Tb$Tb$ b$b$ S → aTb → ab T → 

24. Proof conti: (2)If a pushdown automaton recognizes some language, then it is context free Say that P=(Q, , , , q 0, {q accept }) and construct G. The variables of G are {A pq : p,q ∈ Q} The start variable is For each p,q,r,s ∈ Q, t ∈ , and a,b ∈   If (r,t) ∈  (p,a,  ) and (q,  ) ∈  (s,b,t) Put A pq → aA rs b in G For each p,q,r ∈ Q, put A pq → A pr A rq in G For each p ∈ Q, put A pp →  in G

25. Proof conti: Suppose P has the following 3 features: It has a single accept state, q accept It empties its stack before accepting Each transition either pushes a symbol onto the stack or pops one off the stack, but does not do both at the same time. Stack height Input string state prq Generated by A pr Generated by A rq A pq → A pr A r q Stack height state p r q Generated by A rs A pq → aA rs b s ab

26. Proof conti: Claim : (Page112 & 113) A pq generates x iff x can bring P from p with empty stack to q with empty stack. ■

27. Non-Context-Free Languages Thm: (Pumping lemma for context-free languages) If A is context free, then there is a number p, where if s ∈ A of length at least p, then s may be divided into 5 pieces s=uvxyz satisfying the conditions: 1.For each i ≥ 0, uv i xy i z ∈ A 2.|vy|>0 3.|vxy| ≤ p

28. Proof: T R R uvzxy T R R uvzy xvy R R x R xvy R

29. Proof conti: Let G be a CFG for CFL A b: the max number of symbols in the right-hand side of a rule (b ≥ 2) Thus, if a parse tree has height h, then the string generated has length ≤ b h |V|: the number of variables in G Let p=b |V|+2 > b |V|+1 ⇒ Any string of length ≥ p must have a parse tree of height ≥ |V|+2 ≤b≤b

30. Proof conti: s: a string in A with length ≥ p Let  be a parse tree of s Suppose  has the smallest number of nodes ⇒  has height ≥ |V|+2 (2) |v y|>0(3) |v x y| ≤ p if |v y|=0 ■ ≥ |V|+2 R R R x  R ⇒ R x  R R R yxv ≤ |V|+1 |v x y| ≤ b |V|+1 <b |V|+2 =p

31. Eg: Use the pumping lemma to show that the language B={a n b n c n |n ≥ 0} is not context free Proof: Assume B is a CFL and obtain a contradiction. Let p be the pumping length for B. Select s=a p b p c p ∈ B =uvxyz

32. Proof conti: By condition (2), v or y is not empty case 1: When v and y contain only one type of alphabet u v 2 x y 2 z a a a b a c b b b c c c

33. Proof conti: case 2: When either v or y contain more than one type of symbol u v 2 x y 2 z will destroy the order of a n b n c n (ab) 2 ■

34. Eg: Let C={a i b j c k : 0 ≤ i ≤ j ≤ k}. Use the pumping lemma to show that C is not a CFL Proof: p : pumping length Choose s = a p b p c p = uvxyz

35. Proof conti: case 1: When both v and y contain only one type of alphabet u v 2 x y 2 z a a a b a c b b b c ⇒ ⇒ There are fewer b than a c c ⇒ ⇒ There are fewer c than b and a

36. Proof conti: case 2: When either v or y contain more than one type of symbol uv 2 xy 2 z will not contain the symbols in the correct order ■

37. Eg: Use the pumping lemma to show that D={ww : w ∈ {0,1} * } is not a CFL Proof: p : pumping length Choose s = 0 p 1 p 0 p 1 p = uvxyz ~~~ ≤ p

38. Proof conti: 0 p 1111…1100….00001 p straddle the midpoint uv 0 xy 0 z has the form 0 p 1 i 0 j 1 p, where i and j cannot both be p vxy

39. Using dynamic programming to test if w ∈ L Let L be generated by CFG G in Chomsky normal form. For i ≤ j, Table(i,j) contains the collection of variables that generates the substring w i w i+1 … w j CFL

40. D= “ On input w=w 1 w 2 … w n (page 241) 1.If w=  and S →  is a rule, accept 2.For i=1 to n 3For each variable A 4Test whether A → b is a rule, where b=w i 5if so, place A in Table(i,i) 6.For l=2 to n 7.For i=1 to n-l+1 8.j=i+l-1 9.For k=i to j-1 10.For each rule A → BC 11.If Table(i, k) contains B and Table(k+1, j) contains C Put A in Table(i, j) 12.If S is in Table(1,n), ACCEPT; otherwise Reject. “

41. Designing CFG: Eg: {0 n 1 n : n ≥ 0} ∪ {1 n 0 n : n ≥ 0} S 1 → 0S 1 1|  S 2 → 1S 2 0|  S → S 1 |S 2 S 1 → 0S 1 1|  S 2 → 1S 2 0| 

42. Eg: Convert any DFA into an equivalent CFG Make a variable R i for each state q i of the DFA Add the rule R i → aR j if  (q i,a)=q j Add the rule R i →  if q i is an accept state Make R 0 the start variable

43. Ambiguity: → + | x |( )|a a+a × a