1. COGNITIVE DISSONANCE THEORY

2. Associative Networks  Cognitive structures (beliefs, attitudes) exist in associative networks.  The associations are often unconscious or implicit.  Changes in one cognitive element may produce a “ripple effect” elsewhere in the cognitive system.

3. Dissonance and “Buyer’s Remorse”  People seek to maintain a stable, positive, self-concept.  People rationalize their choices and actions in light of their self-concept.  Behavior that contradicts one’s beliefs or self-concept causes dissonance.  Making a decision produces dissonance or “buyer’s remorse.”  The more important the decision, the greater the dissonance. People engage in self- persuasion to justify their decisions to themselves, and proselytizing to justify their decisions to others.

4. Cognitive dissonance in action Angelina Jolie had her “Billy Bob” tattoo removed after the couple split up. The new tattoo has the longitudes and latitudes of her adopted children. Michael Jackson fans actively protested during his trial to demonstrate their loyalty and commitment to the “King of Pop.”

5. Dissonance in Action A voter who liked Hillary Clinton and Barack Obama might experience dissonance over having to vote for one or the other. + + - A commuter buys a large SUV. Soon after, the price of gas soars. He experiences dissonance every time he stops for gas. - + +

6. Magnitude of Dissonance  Free choice paradigm  the more free choice one has in making a decision, the more dissonance one will suffer.  Belief disconfirmation  Exposure to information contrary to strongly held beliefs may increase adherence to those beliefs (e.g., stubbornness).  Induced compliance  When a person is forced to do something, little dissonance is aroused.  The person can rationalize the action by saying “I had no choice.”  Effort justification  The greater the effort or sacrifice involved, the greater the dissonance.

7. Ways of Reducing Dissonance  Rationalizing is not the same as being rational.  Selective exposure  Paying attention only to information that supports the choice made.  Avoiding information that is inconsistent with the choice made.  Polarization of alternatives  Exaggerating the differences between the alternatives once the choice is made.  Any of the strategies for maintaining cognitive consistency  Denial  Bolstering  Differentiation  Transcendence  Modifying one or more cognitions  Communicating

8. Psychological Reactance  Also known as “reverse psychology”  Backlash: A perceived threat to one’s freedom produces a defensive reaction.  Forbidden fruit: Outlawing something may make it even more attractive.  Examples:  A pushy salesperson may drive customers away.  When restrictions are placed on firearms, firearm sales increase dramatically before the ban takes effect.  A parent who criticizes a daughter’s boyfriend may drive the daughter into the boyfriend’s arms.

9. Counterattitudinal Advocacy  Devil’s Advocate: Advocating a contrary position shifts one’s attitudes toward the contrary position.  No external justifications may be present.  The advocacy should be volitional (not compelled).  The advocacy should be public (in writing or out loud).  No external incentives should be provided.  The person will internalize the choice to advocate the contrary position.  The person’s attitudes will shift (partially) toward the contrary position.

10. Commitment  Once we are committed to a course of action, it is hard to turn back.  A car owner may “throw good money after bad” making one repair after another.  Gamblers may double their bets every time they lose.  Social customs are designed to increase commitments.  Wedding customs  Initiation rituals  Commitments can grow legs.  People add additional justifications for their original decision.

11. Marketing inconsistency