1. Soil Organic Matter Keith R. Baldwin NC A&T State University

2. Soil Organic Matter SOM consists of a broad spectrum of chemical classes, including amino acids, lignin, polysaccharides, proteins, cutins, chitins, melanins, suberins, and paraffinic macromolecules, as well as organic chemicals produced by humans.

3. Benefits of Organic Matter Increases soil CEC Stabilizes nutrients Builds soil friability and tilth Reduces soil splash

4. Benefits of Organic Matter Reduces compaction and bulk density Provides a food source for microorganisms Increases activities of earthworms and other soil critters

5. Carbon Sequestration C cycling in agroecosystems has a significant impact at the global scale because agriculture occupies approximately 11% of the land surface area of the earth.

6. The Morrow Plots Continuous corn Corn-oat or Corn-soybean Corn-oat-red clover

7. Sanborn Field After 100 years, all topsoil was eroded in continuous corn and 50% of topsoil was eroded from a 6-year rotation. Shorter rotations general provide greater economic returns but longer rotations are more effective in maintaining soil productivity over the long run.

8. Sanborn Field The decline in soil N was less rapid with longer periods of forages in the rotation and with less frequent soil cultivations. Where erosion has decreased topsoil depth, reduced water-holding capacity is the most limiting factor and additions of nutrients have limited value in restoring soil productivity.

9. Old Rotation 107 years Continuous cotton with 0 N, 134 kg N, and crimson clover or vetch: 16% without N 2-yr cotton corn rotation with winter legume and winter legume with 134 kg N: 160% w/ legume and 188% w/leg. + N 3-yr cotton-winter legume-corn-winter cereal-soybean: 203%

10. Old Rotation 107 years SOC was substantially reduced under continuous cotton in the absence of legumes or N. A winter legume cover crop greatly increased SOC compared to cotton with or without N. Rotations with N increased biomass and C inputs and further increased SOC.

11. Old Rotation 107 years In this highly weathered soil, the 3-yr rotation, with copious residue addition to soil, resulted in the lowest bulk density, penetration resistance, and greatest hydraulic conductivity. Importantly, water-stable aggregates also increased.

12. Southern Conditions The need for crop residues-manures and conservation tillage practices to sustain SOC and consequently effect changes in soil quality is greater for warmer more humid climates. In Georgia, 12 Mg ha -1 crop residues left to decompose on the soil surface were required to sustain soil quality commensurate with the inherent soil and climatic resources.

13. Southern Conditions Without significant inputs of C from crop residues and/or manures, conservation tillage alone can only slow the loss of SOC, not halt or reverse it. One year with conventionally tilled soybean destroyed the benefits achieved after 4 years of sustainable, no-till cropping.

14. Carbon Inputs to Soil Crop residues Cover crops Compost Manures

15. Carbon Substrate The majority of C enters the soil in the form of complex organic matter containing highly reduced, polymeric substances. During decomposition, energy is obtained from oxidation of the C-H bonds in the organic material.

16. Soil Carbon Equilibrium Input primarily as plant products Output mediated by activity of decomposers It is common that from 40 to 60% of the C taken up by microorganisms is immediately released as CO 2.

17. The Soil Food Web

18. In 1 teaspoon of soil there are…  Bacteria 100 million to 1 billion  Fungi 6-9 ft fungal strands put end to end  Protozoa Several thousand flagellates & amoeba One to several hundred ciliates  Nematodes 10 to 20 bacterial feeders and a few fungal feeders  ArthropodsUp to 100  Earthworms5 or more Travis & Gugino - PSU

19. Classical C Pools Nonhumic substances—carbohydrates, lipids, proteins Humic substances—humic acid, fulvic acid, humin

20. The Light Fraction The light fraction (LF) with a density of ~1.6 gm cm -3 is relatively mineral free and consists of partially decomposed plant material, fine roots and microbial biomass with a rapid turnover time. The LF is a source of readily mineralizable C and N, accounts for ~50% of total soil C and declines rapidly under cultivation.

21. The Heavy Fraction The heavy fraction (HF) is organic matter adsorbed onto mineral surfaces and sequestered within organomineral aggregates. The HF is less sensitive to disturbance an chemically more resistant than the LF.

22. Bacteria vs. Fungi Bacteria are smaller than fungi and can occupy smaller pores and thus potentially have greater access to material contained within these pores. Bacteria are less disrupted than are fungi by tillage practices commonly used in agriculture.

23. Microorganisms Bacteria UBC EM facility Ed Basgall CIMC Pseudomonas Arthrobacter Bacillus Travis & Gugino - PSU

24. Bacteria vs. Fungi Fungi tend to be selected for by plant residues with high C/N ratios. Fungi have a greater influence on decomposition in no-till systems in which surface residues select for organisms that can withstand low water potentials and obtain nutrients from the underlying soil profile.

25. Microorganisms Fungi PSU Em facility Trichoderma Aspergillus Fusarium D.C. Straney K.J. Kwon-Chung Travis & Gugino - PSU

26. Bacteria vs. Fungi Fungi often produce more cell wall than cytoplasmic material when starved for N, and thus can extend into new regions of the soil without requiring balanced growth conditions. The filamentous growth structure of a fungus permits it to access C in one location and nutrients in another.

27. Mycorrhizae

28. The Microbial Biomass The C contained in microbial biomass ranges from 1 to 5% of the total organic C in the soil. Being one of the most labile pools of soil organic matter, microbial biomass is an important reservoir of plant nutrients. Because process rates are strongly dependent on the size of microbial populations, quantification of total microbial population is important in estimating the rates of C turnover.

29. Microorganisms Actinomycetes SSSA Univ of Iowa Paul R. August Streptomyces Travis & Gugino - PSU

30. Nematodes

31. The Microbial Biomass Biomass is influenced by rainfall or irrigation. Microbial biomass is positively correlated to an estimate of the organic N available to crops in no-tillage surface soil.

32. Microbial Biomass Pool Low C/N and labile 1 to 5% of SOC is in microbial biomass and 2 to 6% of soil organic N. 1 to 4% of soil organic N is mineralized annually. Microbial biomass represents a significant amount of potentially mineralizable N.

33. Many beneficial effects from activities of microorganisms Microorganisms produce: –Plant growth hormones –Stimulate plant growth hormones –Compete with disease organisms

34. How Microorganisms Eat Large, complex organic molecules are digested by enzymes outside the cell wall and converted into small compounds that are easy for microorganisms to take up.

35. C Utilization by Microorganisms Respiration Assimilation Maintenance

36. Crops Use Biomass N Even when N fertilizers are added in amounts that are sufficient to satisfy the crop’s demand, the crop recovery of fertilizer-derived N is no more than 60% of that which was added, with the remainder being made up from N released from organic matter pools and small amounts from atmospheric inputs.

37. Soil Activity Hotspots

38. Mineralization The C/N ration is often used to predict mineralization but one must remember that both mineralization and immobilization are taking place at the same time. The negative impact of a high C/N ratio may be short-lived and harmful only if plant demand for N is high during periods of substantial immobilization.

39. Building C Stores There is interest in increasing organic carbon to improve soil structure and reduce erosion. Increasing SOM storage involves increasing C inputs and/or decreasing rates of C decomposition.

40. Increasing SOM Storage Increasing crop productivity Increasing fertilizer where yields are far below maximum attainable yields Decreasing fallow Improving management

41. Increasing SOM Storage Conservation tillage can sustain or actually increase SOC when coupled with intensive cropping systems. Controlling rates of decomposition by manipulating organic matter quality Physically protecting residues

42. Decreasing Decomposition Chemically adsorbed to clay Biochemical stabilization—OM “quality” Physical protection within stable macroaggregates and isolated in micropores

43. Importance of Clay Preserves microbial biomass Provides an environment for close interactions between microorganisms and heir metabolites Sequesters what would otherwise be readily decomposable OM Preserves C in the presence of physical disruption (tillage).

44. Root Exudates Root exudates (including other losses) can account for 10 to 33% of the net plant photosynthate. Total exudation and grazing loss by soil predators may account for as much as 150% of C in the root biomass at harvest.

45. Glue Organisms not limited by carbon can undergo uncoupled growth, resulting in energy-spilling reactions that result in the synthesis of storage polymers and excretion of extracellular polymeric substances.

46. Aggregate Formation Soil extracellular polymers are most often associated with the clay fraction. Polysaccharides are protected from decomposition through their interaction with clay, metal ions, and tannins. Intact bacterial colonies and fungal hyphae in soil are commonly coated with fine clay.

47. Failure Zones The presence of readily mineralizable C in POM will result in a growth in the biomass of microbes and their predators and the production of extracellular materials including polysaccharides. Polysaccharides are strongly adsorbed on mineral materials and are effective in strengthening failure zones, accounting for improved aggregate stability.

48. Benefits of Microorganisms in Soil Improved soil physical properties eg. structure and texture Air flow Water retention Soil porosity

49. Aggregation A matrix of plant residues, microbial biomass, and extracellular material that becomes encrusted by mineral material dominated by small pores may become the center of water stable aggregates. The contribution to plant-soil water relations depends on pore continuity between aggregates and soil pores.

50. Benefits of Aggregation Available water holding capacity Improved soil structure and tilth Improved infiltration Improved hydraulic conductivity Improved oxygen diffusion

51. Stability of Aggregates Amounts of fine roots and fungal hyphae which strengthen failure zones through physical entanglement, and which also act as sources of carbon for bacteria, thereby contributing to increased production of microbial cementing materials.

52. Staying Power Polysaccharides are readily mineralized and their effects on water adsorption (increased available water holding capacity) and aggregate stability is transient unless the residue is continually renewed or the polysaccharides are physically protected from attack by microorganisms or extracellular enzymes.

53. Aggregates Conserve SOC Compartmentalization of substrate and microbial biomass and grazers Reduced diffusion of oxygen Inaccessibility of substrates within aggregates is due to pore size exclusion and related to water-filled porosity.

54. Macroaggregates Macroaggregates are more transient than microaggregates because their organic binding agents, roots and hyphae, are more rapidly degradable than the older humified material making up some of the mineral—organic complexes binding the microaggregates.

55. Soil As Home Ecosystem Engineers

56. Failure Zones Freeze/Thaw and Wetting/Drying Provide sites for root development Once roots penetrate the failure zones, the deposition of carbon will subsequently lead to stabilization of the root channels and the adjacent matrix. Pores created by soil fauna may be stabilized in the same way.

57. Soil as Home Nematode Mite Pillbug Springtail Symphylan

58. Other Arthropods

59. Thrips Wireworm Rootworm White grubs

60. Diversity promotes stability Abundance alone cannot explain impacts of soil organisms on soil quality