1. Chapter 18 Life in the Universe We, this people, on a small and lonely planet Traveling through casual space Past aloof stars, across the way of indifferent suns To a destination where all signs tell us It is possible and imperative that we learn A brave and startling truth. — Maya Angelou

2. 18.1 Life on Earth Our goals for learning When did life arise on Earth? How did life arise on Earth? What are the necessities of life?

3. When did life arise on Earth? Probably before 3.85 billion years ago. When was our planet formed? Shortly after end of heavy bombardment, 4.2-3.9 billion years ago.

4. Fossils are relics of organisms that died long ago. They accumulate at the bottom of the seas where they get compressed by the weight of upper layers, into rock. Erosion or tectonic activity can later expose those fossils… Fossil evidence… The rock layers of the Grand Canyon record 2 billion years of Earth’s history…

5. Fossil evidence for microbes 3.5 billion years ago Already fairly complex life (photosynthesis), suggesting much earlier origin. Carbon isotope evidence pushes origin to before 3.85 billion years ago. Colonies of microbes from Western Australia. Old samples show that microbes were present even 3.5 billion years ago.

6. The Geological Time Scale Life formed relatively fast!

7. How did life arise on Earth? All life on Earth shares a common ancestry. We may never know exactly how the first organism arose, but laboratory experiments suggest plausible scenarios. Life evolves through time.

8. The Theory of Evolution The fossil record shows that evolution has occurred through time. Darwin’s theory tells us HOW evolution occurs: through natural selection. Theory supported by discovery of DNA: evolution proceeds through mutations.

9. Mapping genetic relationships has led biologists to discover this new “tree of life.” Plants and animals are a small part of the tree. Suggests likely characteristics of common ancestor

10. These genetic studies suggest that the earliest life on Earth may have resembled the bacteria today found near deep ocean volcanic vents (black smokers) and geothermal hot springs. A volcanic vent on the ocean floor that spews out hot (110C, 230F) mineral rich water. Aerial photo of a hot spring in Yellowstone. Different colors are from different microbes.

11. Laboratory experiments allow us to investigate possible pathways to the origin of life. Miller-Urey experiment (and more recent experiments): Building blocks of life form easily and spontaneously under conditions of early Earth (essentially mix chemicals and spark them with energy).

12. Microscopic, enclosed membranes or “pre-cells” have been created in the lab. Also, long strands of RNA, the code of life which came before DNA, has been artificially created. Enclosed membranes that self-assamble in experiments mimicking conditions on the early Earth.

13. Chemicals to Life? Maybe this is how it happened…

14. Could life have migrated to Earth? Venus, Earth, Mars have exchanged tons of rock (blasted into orbit by impacts) Some microbes can survive years in space...

15. Brief History of Life 4.4 billion years - early oceans form 3.5 billion years - cyanobacteria start releasing oxygen. 2.0 billion years - oxygen begins building up in atmosphere (before that, all oxygen was pulled out of the atmosphere by chemical reaction with rocks) 540-500 million years - Cambrian Explosion 225-65 million years - dinosaurs and small mammals (dinosaurs ruled) Few million years - earliest hominids

16. The Geological Time Scale Life formed relatively fast! Our atmosphere formed.

17. Thought Question You have a time machine with a dial that you can spin to send you randomly to any time in Earth’s history. If you spin the dial, travel through time, and walk out, what is most likely to happen to you? A.You’ll be eaten by dinosaurs. B.You’ll suffocate because you’ll be unable to breathe the air. C.You’ll be consumed by toxic bacteria. D.Nothing: you’ll probably be just fine.

18. Thought Question You have a time machine with a dial that you can spin to send you randomly to any time in Earth’s history. If you spin the dial, travel through time, and walk out, what is most likely to happen to you? A.You’ll be eaten by dinosaurs. B.You’ll suffocate because you’ll be unable to breathe the air. C.You’ll be consumed by toxic bacteria. D.Nothing: you’ll probably be just fine.

19. What are the necessities of life? Nutrient source Energy (sunlight, chemical reactions, internal heat) Liquid water (or possibly some other liquid) Hardest to find on other planets

20. What have we learned? When did life arise on Earth? Fossil evidence puts the origin of life at least 3.5 billion years ago, and carbon isotope evidence pushes this date to more than 3.85 billion years ago. Thus, life arose within a few hundred million years after the last major impact of the heavy bombardment, and possibly in a much shorter time.

21. What have we learned? How did life arise on Earth? Genetic evidence suggests that all life on Earth evolved from a common ancestor, and this ancestor was probably similar to microbes that live today in hot water near undersea volcanic vents or hot springs. We do not know how this first organism arose, but laboratory experiments suggest that it may have been the result of natural chemical processes on the early Earth.

22. What have we learned? What are the necessities of life? Life on Earth thrives in a wide range of environments, and in general seems to require only three things: a source of nutrients, a source of energy, and liquid water.

23. 18.2 Life in the Solar System Our goals for learning Could there be life on Mars? Could there be life on Europa or other jovian moons?

24. Could there be life on Mars? Mars had liquid water in the distant past Still has subsurface ice; possibly subsurface water near sources of volcanic heat. Is Mars still geologically active?

25. In 2004, NASA Spirit and Opportunity Rovers sent home new mineral evidence of past liquid water on Mars.

26. Close-up view of rock apparently formed in water.

27. The Martian Meteorite debate composition indicates origin on Mars. 1984: meteorite ALH84001 found in Antarctica 13,000 years ago: fell to Earth in Antarctica 16 million years ago: blasted from surface of Mars 4.5 billion years ago: rock formed on Mars

28. Does the meteorite contain fossil evidence of life on Mars? Picture show the meteorite from Mars (left) and rock from the Earth. Structure on Earth was formed by nanobacteria, and resembles the one from Mars. But meteorite was probably contaminated while on Antarctica.

29. Could there be life on Europa or other jovian moons?

30. Ganymede, Callisto also show some evidence for subsurface oceans. Relatively little energy available for life, but still… Intriguing prospect of THREE potential homes for life around Jupiter alone… Ganymede Callisto

31. Titan Surface too cold for liquid water (but deep underground?) Liquid ethane/methane on surface! Huygens probe descent, Jan. 2005

32. What have we learned? Could there be life on Mars? Mars once had conditions that may have been conducive to an origin of life. If life arose, it might still survive in pockets of liquid water underground.

33. What have we learned? Could there be life on Europa or other jovian moons? Europa probably has a subsurface ocean of liquid water, and may have undersea volcanoes on its ocean floor. If so, it has conditions much like those in which life on Earth probably arose, making it a good candidate for life beyond Earth. Ganymede and Callisto might have oceans as well. Titan may have other liquids on its surface, though it is too cold for liquid water. Perhaps life can survive in these other liquids, or perhaps Titan has liquid water deep underground.

34. 18.3 Life Around Other Stars Our goals for learning Are habitable planets likely? Are Earth-like planets rare or common?

35. Are habitable planets likely? Caveat: Telescopically we can search only for planets with habitable surfaces — not for worlds with Europa-like subsurface oceans. Definition: A habitable world contains the basic necessities for life as we know it, including liquid water. It does not necessarily have life.

36. Constraints on star systems: 1)Old enough to allow time for evolution (rules out high-mass stars - 1%) 2)Need to have stable orbits (might rule out binary/multiple star systems - 50%) 3)Size of “habitable zone”: region in which a planet of the right size could have liquid water on its surface. Even so… billions of stars in the Milky Way seem at least to offer the possibility of habitable worlds.

37. The more massive the star, the larger the habitable zone — higher probability of a planet in this zone.

38. Finding them will be hard Recall our scale model solar system: Looking for an Earthlike planet around a nearby star is like standing on the East Coast of the United States and looking for a pinhead on the West Coast — with a VERY bright grapefruit nearby. But new technologies should soon show the way…

39. Kepler (2007 launch) will monitor 100,000 stars for transit events for 4 years. Later: SIM (2009?), TPF (2015?): interferometers to obtain spectra and crude images of Earth-size planets.

40. Spectral signatures of life oxygen/ozone Earth Venus Mars

41. Are Earth-like planets rare or common? Galactic “habitable zone”: minimum limits on heavy element abundance, distance from galactic center? Jupiter protection from frequent impacts? Climate stabilized by a large Moon and plate tectonics? We don’t yet know how important or negligible these concerns are.

42. What have we learned? Are habitable planets likely? Billions of stars have at least moderatesize habitable zones in which life bearing planets might exist. We do not yet have the technology to search for habitable planets directly, but several planned missions should be able to begin the search soon.

43. What have we learned? Are Earth-like planets rare or common? We don’t know. Arguments can be made on both sides of the question, and we lack the data to determine their validity at present.

44. 18.4 The Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence Our goals for learning How many civilizations are out there? How does SETI work?

45. The Drake Equation Number of civilizations with whom we could potentially communicate = N HP  f life  f civ  f now N HP = total # of habitable planets in galaxy f life = fraction of habitable planets with life f civ = fraction of life-bearing planets w/ civilization at some time f now = fraction of civilizations around now. How many civilizations are out there?

46. We do not know the values for the Drake Equation N HP : probably billions. f life : ??? Hard to say (near 0 or near 1) f civ : ??? It took 4 billion years on Earth f now : ??? Can civilizations survive long-term?

47. Are we “off the chart” smart?

48. Current SETI efforts could not detect signals as weak as our own radio/TV broadcasts. For now, at least, we are looking for deliberately broadcast signals.. How does SETI work?

49. We’ve even sent a few signals ourselves… Earth to globular cluster M13: Hoping we’ll hear back in about 42,000 years!

50. Your computer can help! SETI @ Home: a screensaver with a purpose. SETI@home is a scientific experiment that uses Internet-connected computers in the Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence (SETI). You can participate by running a free program that downloads and analyzes radio telescope data.

51. What have we learned? How many civilizations are out there? We don’t know, but the Drake equation gives us a way to organize our thinking about the question. The equation (in a modified form) says that the number of civilizations in the Milky Way Galaxy with whom we could potentially communicate is where is the number of habitable planets in the galaxy, is the fraction of habitable planets that actually have life on them, is the fraction of life- bearing planets upon which a civilization capable of interstellar communication has at some time arisen, and is the fraction of all these civilizations that exist now.

52. What have we learned? How does SETI work? SETI, the search for extraterrestrial intelligence, generally refers to efforts to detect signals—such as radio or laser communications—coming from civilizations on other worlds.

53. 18.5 Interstellar Travel and Its Implications to Civilization Our goals for learning How difficult is interstellar travel? Where are the aliens?

54. How difficult is interstellar travel? Very! Current spacecraft travel at <1/10,000 c; 100,000 years to the nearest stars. Pioneer plaqueVoyager record

55. Real interstellar travel faces huge hurdles: Far more efficient engines Incredible energy requirements Ordinary particles become dangerous cosmic rays Time dilation affects crew

56. Where are the aliens? “Fermi’s Paradox” Plausible arguments suggest that civilizations should be common, for example: Even if only 1 in 1 million stars gets a civilization at some time  100,000 civilizations Moreover, most of the stars are older than our Sun, so other civilizations had several extra billion years to develop. They should have already occupied the Galaxy! So why we haven’t we detected them?

57. Possible solutions to the paradox 1)We are alone: life/civilizations much rarer than we might have guessed. Our own planet/civilization looks all the more precious…

58. Possible solutions to the paradox 2)Civilizations are common but interstellar travel is not. Perhaps because:  Interstellar travel more difficult than we think.  Desire to explore is rare.  Civilizations destroy themselves before achieving interstellar travel These are all possibilities, but not very appealing…

59. Possible solutions to the paradox 3)There IS a galactic civilization… … and some day we’ll meet them…

60. What have we learned? How difficult is interstellar travel? Convenient interstellar travel remains well beyond our technological capabilities, because of the technological requirements for engines, the enormous energy needed to accelerate spacecraft to speeds near the speed of light, and the difficulties of shielding the crew from radiation. Nevertheless, it seems reasonable to think that we will someday achieve interstellar travel if we survive long enough.

61. What have we learned? Where are the aliens? It seems that we should be capable of colonizing the galaxy in a few million years or less, and the galaxy was around for at least 7 billion years before Earth was even born. Thus, it seems that someone should have colonized the galaxy long ago—yet we have no evidence of other civilizations. Every possible category of explanation for this surprising fact has astonishing implications for our species and our place in the universe.

62. Which of the following best describes the predominant scientific view of the origin of life on Earth? [Hint] A. Life probably migrated to Earth from some other world. B. Life arose through a series of extremely unlikely chemical coincidences, making it seem almost miraculous that life ever came to exist at all. C. We may never know precisely how life arose on Earth, but current knowledge suggests that life likely arose easily under the conditions that prevailed on the early Earth. D. We can describe with great certainty the precise steps by which life arose on Earth.

63. When we analyze whether a world is a possible home to life, the key thing we look for is _________. [Hint] A. surface coloration changes that could indicate vegetative growth B. the presence of organic molecules such as amino acids C. evidence of atmospheric oxygen D. the past or present existence of liquid water

64. We are not yet capable of detecting life on planets around other stars. But as our technology develops, our first real chance of detecting such life will probably come from _________. [Hint] A. examining high-resolution images of the planets made by orbiting telescopes B. determining the orbital properties of the planets C. examining spectral lines from the atmospheres of distant planets D. sending spacecraft to study the planets up close

65. Which of the following describes a major danger of interstellar travel at near-light speed? [Hint] A. Asteroid fields floating in interstellar space will present a navigational challenge. B. Atoms and ions in interstellar space will hit a fast-moving spacecraft like a flood of dangerous cosmic rays. C. Any interstellar journey will take much longer than the lives of the crew members. D. Time dilation will slow the heart beats of the crew to a dangerously low rate.

66. Which of the following is NOT considered a potential solution to the question of why we lack any evidence of a galactic civilization? [Hint] A. There is no galactic civilization because we are the first species ever to achieve the ability to study the universe. B. The galactic civilization probably is undetectable because they operate under different laws of physics from the ones we know. C. There is no galactic civilization because all civilizations destroy themselves before they achieve the ability to colonize the galaxy. D. The galactic civilization is deliberately avoiding contact with us.