1. 6
Learning
How Nurture Changes Us
Slides prepared by Matthew Isaak

2. Learning Objectives
LO 6.1 Describe Pavlov's model of classical conditioning and discriminate conditioned stimuli and responses from unconditioned stimuli and responses. LO 6.2 Explain the major principles and terminology associated with classical conditioning. LO 6.3 Explain how complex behaviors can result from classical conditioning and how they emerge in our daily lives.

3. Learning Objectives
LO 6.4 Distinguish operant conditioning from classical conditioning. LO 6.5 Describe Thorndike's law of effect. LO 6.6 Describe reinforcement and its effects on behavior and distinguish negative reinforcement from punishment. LO 6.7 Identify the four schedules of reinforcement and the response pattern associated with each. LO 6.8 Describe some applications of operant conditioning.

4. Learning Objectives
LO 6.9 Outline the evidence that supports latent learning and observational learning. LO 6.10 Identify evidence of insight learning. LO 6.11 Explain how biological predispositions can facilitate learning of some associations. LO 6.12 Evaluate popular techniques marketed to enhance learning

5. Lecture Preview Classical conditioning Operant conditioning
Cognitive models of learning
Biological influences on learning
Learning fads

6. Learning LO 6.1 Describe Pavlov's model of classical conditioning and discriminate conditioned stimuli and responses from unconditioned stimuli and responses.
Change in an organism's behavior or thought as a result of experience
Many different kinds; most basic are habituation and sensitization
Responding to stimuli less or more over time
LO 6.1

7. Classical Conditioning LO 6
Classical Conditioning LO 6.1 Describe Pavlov's model of classical conditioning and discriminate conditioned stimuli and responses from unconditioned stimuli and responses.
Large amounts of learning occur though association.
The British Associationists believed we acquired most knowledge via conditioning.
Simple associations provided the mental building blocks for more complex ideas.
LO 6.1

8. Pavlov's Discovery of Classical Conditioning LO 6
Pavlov's Discovery of Classical Conditioning LO 6.1 Describe Pavlov's model of classical conditioning and discriminate conditioned stimuli and responses from unconditioned stimuli and responses.
Russian physiologist and 1904 Nobel Prize winner
Most famous for work on digestion of the dog
This included the first work on classical conditioning.
LO 6.1

9. Pavlov's Discovery of Classical Conditioning LO 6
Pavlov's Discovery of Classical Conditioning LO 6.1 Describe Pavlov's model of classical conditioning and discriminate conditioned stimuli and responses from unconditioned stimuli and responses.
Involves five primary components:
Neutral stimulus (NS)
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
Unconditioned response (UCR)
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
Conditioned response (CR)
LO 6.1

10. Classical Conditioning Steps LO 6
Classical Conditioning Steps LO 6.1 Describe Pavlov's model of classical conditioning and discriminate conditioned stimuli and responses from unconditioned stimuli and responses.
Start with a neutral stimulus (NS), which does not elicit a particular response.
Metronome
Pair the NS again and again with the unconditioned stimulus (UCS), which elicits an unconditioned response (UCR).
Meat powder and salivation
LO 6.1

11. Figure 6.2 Pavlov's Classical Conditioning Model.

12. Classical Conditioning Steps LO 6
Classical Conditioning Steps LO 6.1 Describe Pavlov's model of classical conditioning and discriminate conditioned stimuli and responses from unconditioned stimuli and responses.
Eventually, the NS becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS), eliciting a conditioned response (CR).
Metronome and salivation
The organism reacts the same way to the CS as it did to the UCS.
LO 6.1

13. Principles of Classical Conditioning LO 6
Principles of Classical Conditioning LO 6.2 Explain the major principles and terminology associated with classical conditioning.
Acquisition is the phase during which a CR is established.
Extinction is the reduction and elimination of the CR after the CS is presented repeatedly without the UCS.
LO 6.2

14. Figure 6. 3 Acquisition and Extinction
Figure Acquisition and Extinction. Acquisition is the repeated pairing of UCS and CS, increasing the CR's strength (a). In extinction, the CS is presented again and again without the UCS, resulting in the gradual disappearance of the CR (b).

15. Principles of Classical Conditioning LO 6
Principles of Classical Conditioning LO 6.2 Explain the major principles and terminology associated with classical conditioning.
Stimulus generalization occurs when similar CSs elicit the same CR.
Driving a new car
Stimulus discrimination occurs when one exhibits a particular CR only to certain stimuli, but not to similar others.
Movie about tornado vs. tornado in real life
LO 6.2

16. Higher Order Conditioning LO 6
Higher Order Conditioning LO 6.2 Explain the major principles and terminology associated with classical conditioning.
Process where organisms develop classically conditioned responses to CSs associated with the original CS
Becomes weaker the more distant the association to the original CS
Explains why merely hearing "Want a Coke?" can make you thirsty
LO 6.3

17. Applications of Classical Conditioning LO 6
Applications of Classical Conditioning LO 6.3 Explain how complex behaviors can result from classical conditioning and how they emerge in our daily lives.
Advertisers repeatedly pair their products with stimuli that elicit positive emotions.
Advertisers also make extensive use of higher-order conditioning.

18. Applications of Classical Conditioning LO 6
Applications of Classical Conditioning LO 6.3 Explain how complex behaviors can result from classical conditioning and how they emerge in our daily lives.
Conditioning and stimulus generalization can explain how we acquire phobias.
Little Albert
LO 6.3

19. Applications of Classical Conditioning LO 6
Applications of Classical Conditioning LO 6.3 Explain how complex behaviors can result from classical conditioning and how they emerge in our daily lives.
Feared stimuli may be paired with relaxation to treat phobias.
Little Peter
LO 6.3

20. Applications of Classical Conditioning LO 6
Applications of Classical Conditioning LO 6.3 Explain how complex behaviors can result from classical conditioning and how they emerge in our daily lives.
Fetishism seems to be partly due to classical conditioning.
Classical conditioning may also explain our disgust reactions to safe food and drink.
LO 6.3

21. Operant Conditioning LO 6
Operant Conditioning LO 6.4 Distinguish operant conditioning from classical conditioning.
Learning controlled by the consequences of the organism's behavior
The organism gets something because of its response.
Also known as instrumental conditioning
LO 6.4

22. Table 6.2 Key Differences between Operant and Classical Conditioning.
LO 6.4

23. The Law of Effect LO 6.5 Describe Thorndike's law of effect.
If we're rewarded for a response to a stimulus, we're more likely to repeat that response to the stimulus in the future.
Learning involves an association between a stimulus and response (S-R), with the reward "stamping in" this connection.
LO 6.5

24. The Law of Effect LO 6.5 Describe Thorndike's law of effect.
Psychologist E. L. Thorndike formulated the law of effect after experimenting with cats in puzzle boxes.
Thorndike found no insight in cats. Instead they learned through trial and error.
LO 6.5

25. Figure 6. 5 Thorndike's Puzzle Box
Figure Thorndike's Puzzle Box. Thorndike's classic puzzle box research seemed to suggest that cats solve problems solely through trial and error.

26. B. F. Skinner and Reinforcement LO 6
B.F. Skinner and Reinforcement LO 6.6 Describe reinforcement and its effects on behavior and distinguish negative reinforcement from punishment.
Followed up on Thorndike's work on the law of effect
Designed the Skinner box (or operant chamber) to record organisms' activity more effectively
LO 6.6

27. Figure Rat in Skinner Box and Electronic Device for Recording the Rat's Behavior. B. F. Skinner devised a small chamber (the Skinner box) containing a bar that the rat presses to obtain food, a food dispenser, and often a light that signals when reward is forthcoming. An electronic device graphs the rat's responses in the researcher's absence.

28. Operant Conditioning Terminology LO 6
Operant Conditioning Terminology LO 6.6 Describe reinforcement and its effects on behavior and distinguish negative reinforcement from punishment.
Reinforcements are outcomes that increase the probability of a response.
Positive reinforcement involves giving a stimulus.
Negative reinforcement involves taking away a stimulus.
LO 6.6

29. Operant Conditioning Terminology LO 6
Operant Conditioning Terminology LO 6.6 Describe reinforcement and its effects on behavior and distinguish negative reinforcement from punishment.
Punishment is any outcome that decreases the probability of a response.
Like reinforcement, it can be positive or negative.
Disciplinary actions are punishments only if they decrease the chance of the behavior happening again.
LO 6.6

30. Table 6.3 Distinguishing Reinforcement from Punishment.
LO 6.4

31. Punishment LO 6.6 Describe reinforcement and its effects on behavior and distinguish negative reinforcement from punishment.
Behaviorists argue that punishment is much less effective than reinforcement in modifying human behavior.
Punishment has several disadvantages:
Only tells what not to do
Creates anxiety
Encourages subversive behavior
May provide model for aggressive behavior
LO 6.6

32. Operant Conditioning Terminology LO 6
Operant Conditioning Terminology LO 6.6 Describe reinforcement and its effects on behavior and distinguish negative reinforcement from punishment
A discriminative stimulus signals the presence of reinforcement.
Acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, stimulus generalization, and stimulus discrimination all apply in operant conditioning.
LO 6.6

33. Schedules of Reinforcement LO 6
Schedules of Reinforcement LO 6.7 Identify the four schedules of reinforcement and the response pattern associated with each.
Refers to the pattern of delivering reinforcers
Simplest is continuous reinforcement
Partial reinforcement occurs when we reinforce responses only some of the time.
More resistant to extinction
LO 6.7

34. Schedules of Reinforcement LO 6
Schedules of Reinforcement LO 6.7 Identify the four schedules of reinforcement and the response pattern associated with each.
Vary along two dimensions
Consistency of administering reinforcement
Fixed or variable
The basis of administering reinforcement
Ratio or interval
LO 6.7

35. Schedules of Reinforcement LO 6
Schedules of Reinforcement LO 6.7 Identify the four schedules of reinforcement and the response pattern associated with each.
Fixed Ratio – reinforcement after a set number of responses
Variable Ratio – reinforcement after specific number of responses, on average
Fixed Interval – reinforcement after specific amount of time
Variable Interval – reinforcement after an average time interval
LO 6.7

36. Each schedule yields a distinctive response pattern.
LO 6.7 Identify the four schedules of reinforcement and the response pattern associated with each.
LO 6.7
Each schedule yields a distinctive response pattern.

37. Applications of Operant Conditioning LO 6
Applications of Operant Conditioning LO 6.8 Describe some applications of operant conditioning.
Animal training using shaping, fading, and chaining
Overcoming procrastination via the Premack principle
Development of superstitious behavior
LO 6.8

38. Applications of Operant Conditioning LO 6
Applications of Operant Conditioning LO 6.8 Describe some applications of operant conditioning.
Using token economies in clinical settings to shape desired behaviors
Primary and secondary reinforcers
Applied behavior analysis for language deficits in autism
LO 6.8

39. Combining Classical and Operant Conditioning LO 6
Combining Classical and Operant Conditioning LO 6.8 Describe some applications of operant conditioning.
Two-process theory of anxiety says it begins by classical conditioning, but is maintained by negative reinforcement.
I am bitten (UCS) by a dog (CS), resulting in fear (CR).
I then avoid any dogs I see, which makes my anxiety decrease (negative reinforcement).
LO 6.9

40. Cognitive Models of Learning LO 6
Cognitive Models of Learning LO 6.9 Outline the evidence that supports latent learning and observational learning.
Early behaviorists did not believe that thinking played much of a role in learning.
Argued that thinking and emotions are just covert behaviors
Today, psychologists acknowledge at least some role for cognitions.
LO 6.9

41. S-O-R Psychology LO 6.9 Outline the evidence that supports latent learning and observational learning.
Stimulus-Response (S-R) psychology has given way to Stimulus-Organism-Response (S-O-R) psychology.
The way an organism responds to a stimulus depends on what the stimulus means to it.
Thought processes contribute to conditioning.
LO 6.9

42. Latent Learning LO 6.9 Outline the evidence that supports latent learning and observational learning.
Refers to learning that is not directly observable
Competence vs. performance
Implies that reinforcement is not necessary for learning to occur
Tolman & Honzik's maze trials
LO 6.9

43. Figure 6. 9 Tolman and Honzik's Maze Trials
Figure Tolman and Honzik's Maze Trials. Graph from Tolman and Honzik's classic study of latent learning in rats. Pay particular attention to the blue line. The rats in this group weren't reinforced until day 11; note the sudden drop in the number of their errors on receiving reinforcement. The rats were learning all along, even though they weren't showing it. (Source: Based on Tolman & Honzik, 1930)

44. Latent Learning LO 6.9 Outline the evidence that supports latent learning and observational learning.
The rats had developed cognitive maps that were only used once there was a reinforcer.
This research challenged radical behaviorism and implied that thinking plays a role in some forms of learning.
LO 6.9

45. Observational Learning LO 6
Observational Learning LO 6.9 Outline the evidence that supports latent learning and observational learning.
Means learning by watching others
Don't have to engage in trial and error to learn how to do something new
Bandura's research on observing aggression
LO 6.9

46. Media Violence and Real Aggression LO 6
Media Violence and Real Aggression LO 6.9 Outline the evidence that supports latent learning and observational learning.
Many types of research have examined the impact of violent media on behavior.
Results suggest that media violence impacts real-world aggression in some cases.
But, media violence is only one small contributor to real-world aggression.
LO 6.9

47. Mirror Neurons LO 6.9 Outline the evidence that supports latent learning and observational learning.
Prefrontal neurons that become active when an animal observes or performs an action
May play a role in observational learning and having empathy for others
LO 6.9

48. Insight Learning LO 6.10 Identify evidence of insight learning.
Köhler's chimpanzees and "Aha!" moments
Suggests humans and some other animals may learn through sudden understanding
LO 6.10

49. Biological Influences on Learning LO 6
Biological Influences on Learning LO 6.11 Explain how biological predispositions can facilitate learning of some associations.
Conditioned taste aversions
Develop after only one trial
Can have very long delays (6-8 hours)
Show little generalization
Contradicts the notion of equipotentiality
LO 6.11

50. Preparedness and Phobias LO 6
Preparedness and Phobias LO 6.11 Explain how biological predispositions can facilitate learning of some associations.
Preparedness for certain phobias also contradicts equipotentiality.
We are evolutionarily predisposed to be more afraid of certain things than of others.
Snakes and spiders vs. cars and guns
May encourage illusory correlations between feared stimuli and negative consequences
LO 6.11

51. Instinctive Drift LO 6.11 Explain how biological predispositions can facilitate learning of some associations
The tendency for animals to return to innate behaviors following repeated reinforcement is called instinctive drift.
Biological influences place limits on what kinds of behaviors we can train through reinforcement.
LO 6.11

52. Learning Fads LO 6.12 Evaluate popular techniques marketed to enhance learning.
Many techniques are purported to make you learn better, faster, or more.
Research on sleep-assisted learning shows that benefits actually reflect participants waking up.
Accelerated learning programs are not effective.
LO 6.12

53. Learning Fads LO 6.12 Evaluate popular techniques marketed to enhance learning.
In discovery learning, students figure out scientific principles through trial and error.
Direct instruction is almost always better.
Tailoring teaching to people's learning style does not result in improved learning.
LO 6.12