1. 1 Group 16- The Calcogens - O, S, Se, Nonmetals; Te, metalloid; and Po metal - Have multiple allotropes: Oxygen is a gas as O 2 or O 3 ; Sulfur is a Gas as S 2 S 3 S4 Solid as S 5 to S 8 are cyclic molecules. Selenium is a solid in either Se 8 or polymeric form - Unpleasant odours - Form one monoatomic anion (-2) Po 2+ and Po 4+ also exist (radio active) - Six valence electrons: [N.G.] ns 2 np 4 - Large negative ΔH electronic attraction Melting Point Boiling Point State (at 20 °C) Density (at 20 °C) Oxygen-192.5 °C-111 °CGas0.00143 g/cm 3 Sulfur113 °C445 °CSolid2.07 g/cm 3 Selenium221 °C685 °CSolid4.79 g/cm 3 Tellurium450 °C1390 °CSolid6.24 g/cm 3 Polonium254 °C962 °CSolid9.32 g/cm 3

2. Oxygen “oxygen”, typically diatomic oxygen (O 2 ), Phases of matter: Gas: colourless, odourless, tasteless Liquid: pale blue explosive liquid. Solid: pale blue and very explosive. Reactions Strong oxidizing agent. Reacts spontaneously with the metals of groups 1, 2 and 13; as well as some transition metals. Some of these reactions are quite slow unless heat or a catalyst is added. Why? Another way to increase the reactivity of gaseous O 2 is to add water. Iron rusts much more quickly in damp air than in dry air! Photo by the US EPA

3. 3 Ozone - Ozone (O 3 ) - a significant component of “smog”; - essential component of the upper atmosphere. - Ozone is formed from O 2 in an endothermic reaction: This reaction requires a large input of energy, i.e., from an electric current or electromagnetic radiation from the sun. - Ozone is unstable, decomposing to oxygen (O 2 ). In order to maintain constant amount of ozone, it must continually be regenerated. - Printer and photo copiers produce ozone Health hazard - Used as in swimming pools Photo by the US EPA

4. Atmospheric Ozone - Ozone absorbs UV protecting organisms significant DNA damage. -Ozone is broken into O 2 and oxygen free radical which reacts ozone to form O 2. -This isan exothermic process helping to moderate the Earth’s temperature. S. Rowland and M. Molina in 1974 first reported that atmospheric ozone was disappearing wining them The Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1995. -The “Ozone Hole” in the Antarctic was first reported in 1985 by J. Farman, B. Gardiner, and J. Shanklin. -The “hole in the ozone layer” is an area in which the ozone has thinnedsubstantially. 70% of the ozone over the Antarctic and 30% of the ozone over the Arctic had disappeared by the early 1980s!

5. 5 Where is the ozone going? Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) used as refrigerants – accelerate the decomposition of ozone to O 2. 1)the CFC absorbs UV radiation to give a free chlorine atom as a “free radical” 2)This chlorine atom reacts with ozone to form O 2 and ClO. 3)The ClO reacts with a free oxygen atom to form more O 2 and regenerate the chlorine atom. This cycle continues until the chlorine atom finds something to react with other than ozone. That means that one polluted CFC molecule can be responsible for the destruction of millions of ozone molecules!

6. 6 Sulfur Sulfur exists as a wide range of allotropes: S 2 is violet S 3 is blue S 4 is red S 5 is red-orange S 6 is yellow-orange S 7 to S 15 are all shades of yellow as are S 18, S 20 & S  (a polymer) Some of these allotropes can be further divided into different forms based on their crystal structure (e.g.  -S 8 and β-S 8 have different densities and melting points). Naturally occurring sulfur is  -S 8, eight sulfur atoms in a puckered ring often called a crown. This form of sulfur is insoluble in water. If sulfur is heated to 400 o C then rapidly cooled (e.g. by pouring into cold water), we get “plastic sulfur” which can be pulled into threads.

7. 7 The Frasch process The Frasch process is an extraction technique. In Texas and Louisiana, sulfur deposits of 60-100 meters thick are 400-800 meters underground. Superheated water (160 o C liquid, 16 bar) melts the sulfur then hotcompressed air (20-25 bar) forces the molten sulfur up a third pipe. It takes 10-15 kg of water to extract 1 kg of S 8 The sulfur produced is 98-99.5% pure and can be poured into moulds or distributed as a liquid.

8. 8 The Claus process The Claus process generates S 8 from H 2 S. Mandated emission limits for H 2 S in the oil and gas industry. Sour gas wells!! Two-step process. 1)H 2 S is burned in the presence of O 2. (exothermic) 2) SO 2 is reacted with additional H 2 S. (exothermic but requires a catalyst). In practice, what is done is to pipe a mixture of H 2 S and O 2 into a combustion chamber where most of it reacts to form S 8. The remaining H 2 S and SO 2 produced are then piped into two sequential reaction chambers where they complete the second step.

9. Oxoacids of Sulfur Oxoacids of sulfur are strong acids. When SO 3 is dissolved in water, sulfuric acid is produced: - If SO 3 is bubbled through concentrated sulfuric acid, one produces “fuming sulfuric acid” a.k.a Oleum: y SO 3.H 2 O or H 2 SO 4.xSO 3 - Intermediate in production of sulfuric acid. Used in the manufacturing of TNT. - When power plants burn sulfur-containing coal or oils, they release sulfur dioxide which reacts with another pollutant, nitrogen dioxide, to produce sulfur trioxide and nitrogen monoxide: SO 3 produces dissolves in atmospheric water vapour causing acid rain!

10. Oxoacids of Sulfur Sulfur oxoanions – Sulfate SO 4 -2 and Sulfite SO 3 -2. - More complicated oxoanions with bridging sulfur Ex) S 2 O 4 -2 S 2 O 6 -2 S 2 O 8 -2 S 4 O 6 -2 Draw the Lewis structures of sulfur trioxide and sulfite. How do are these two species similar? How do they differ? If you dissolved 1 mole of each in a liter of water, which would give you a Solution with a lower pH?