1. Packages and Class Visibility The objectives of this chapter are: To understand logical class groupings using packages To explain the environment variable CLASSPATH To describe inner and anonymous classes and their uses

2. Abstraction and Class Namespaces Because classes are an abstraction of real world objects, choosing the correct name for classes can lead to ambiguities This is confounded when classes are taken "out of context" One of the main purposes of packages is to provide a contextual namespace within which a class resides A class called "Stock" may have several meanings A class called "Stock" in the inventory package is much less ambiguous Java provides a syntax for package names Package names are separated by periods Packages can contain classes or packages The fully qualified name of a class includes its package name: inventory.Stock indicates a class called "Stock" within the "inventory" package.

3. Java and A Global Namespace The designers of Java have proposed an Internet-wide unique package naming scheme It includes the Internet domain name of the organization within which the package was developed. The domain is reversed and the subdomains become packages afox.org becomes org.afox The domain portion is prepended to any packages developed within afox.org financial.inventory.Stock becomes org.afox.financial.inventory.Stock This standard guarantees that no other organization will create a class whose name conflicts with classes developed with afox.org.

4. Putting classes in packages To put a class into a package, one uses the "package" statement The package statement MUST be the first line of code within the file. It can be proceeded by comments. If no package statement is supplied, the class is placed in the "default" package The default package is a package with no name package org.afox.financial.inventory; public class Stock { [...] in file Stock.java:

5. Making it all work with Import Unfortunately, the proposed naming scheme creates very long names for classes A class which was originally named "Stock" is now named "org.afox.financial.inventory.Stock". This makes coding difficult. It dramatically reduces code readability. To avoid having to use the fully qualified class name for all classes, the programmer can "import" some or all of the classes from a given package Once a class has been imported, it need only be referenced by its name. ie "Stock" instead of "org.afox.financial.inventory.Stock" // Import a single class import org.afox.financial.inventory.Stock; // Import all classes from the specified packages import org.afox.financial.inventory.*; import java.io.*; import java.net.*;

6. Notes on the import statement Import ONLY imports public classes from the specified package Classes which are not public cannot be referenced from outside their package. There is no way to "import all classes except one" import either imports a single class or all classes within the package Note: importing has no runtime or performance implications. It is only importing a namespace so that the compiler can resolve class names. Import statements must appear at the top of the file after the package statement and before any class or interface definitions.

7. Compiling classes with packages Packages provide a logical namespace for classes When compiled, the package structure is physically represented using a directory structure The.class file for the class "org.afox.financial.inventory.Stock" will reside a the following path: org/afox/financial/inventory/Stock.class Package names map directly to subdirectories The programmer can specify the root of the package directory structure using the -d option with the javac compiler. javac -d /home/schock/classes Stock.java Will cause the compiler to place the.class file at: /home/schock/classes/org/afox/financial/inventory/Stock.class

8. Resolving Packages at Runtime The Java compiler compiles.java files to.class files Each compiled class resides within its own.class file Classes are loaded into the virtual machine by the ClassLoader Because of packages,.class files can now exist within a large number of directories For performance reasons, the ClassLoader must have a quick way of resolving a fully qualified class reference to.class file. Resolving packages to directories is simple. However, the virtual machine must know where to find the directory structure The ClassLoader uses an environment variable called CLASSPATH to find the directory which contains the package directories.

9. CLASSPATH Setting the CLASSPATH has been the bane of many programmers You never really learn how to swear until you try to set the CLASSPATH The CLASSPATH is a variable that contains a list of directories which are separated by colons (:) Note: Under the Windows OS, they are separated by semicolons (;) The the ClassLoader attempts to load a class, it searches for the.class file using the CLASSPATH, Package name and class name: If CLASSPATH="/home/schock/classes:/usr/development/classes" the class loader will search for the Stock class in the following locations: /home/schock/classes/org/afox/financial/inventory/Stock.class /usr/development/classes/org/afox/financial/inventory/Stock.class

10. More on CLASSPATH The ClassLoader searches the directories in the CLASSPATH in the order in which they are defined When the ClassLoader finds a class, it loads it and stops searching Place higher priority directories earlier in the CLASSPATH If no class is found, the ClassLoader throws a NoClassDefFoundError NOTE:.class files can be archived within.zip files or.jar files. When archived, the directory structure is preserved. CLASSPATH can ALSO contain.jar or.zip files. When the ClassLoader encounters a.jar or.zip file within the CLASSPATH, it searches through the.jar or.zip file the same way it would search in a directory. Java applications are distributed in.jar file form.

11. .jar files.jar files are created using the jar command The jar command is included with the Java SDK distribution Note: The.jar file format is the SAME as the.zip file format See the Java SDK Documentation for the jar program. Jar files can be defined with a main class. If a.jar file has a main class defined, it can be executed using the following command: java -jar filename.jar

12. Is CLASSPATH important at compile time? The previous slides have shown how the ClassLoader uses CLASSPATH to find.class files at runtime. CLASSPATH is also used by the compiler to resolve association issues If an object sends a message to another object, the compiler must ensure that the receiving object responds to the message. The receiving object's class must be loaded by the compiler and checked. If the receiving objects class has already been compiled, the above process works. However, what if the class has not yet been compiled and no.class file exists? The compiler attempts to locate the receiving object's.java file (using CLASSPATH) in an attempt to compile it. This means your source file structure MUST ALSO match the package directory structure. The root of your source tree MUST ALSO be within your CLASSPATH

13. Non-public classes As noted earlier, the import statement imports public classes only Non-public classes can be defined in different ways nested classes(Defined within a class) inner classes member classes(similar to nested classes) local classes(defined within a method) anonymous classes(classes with no name!) These forms of defining classes have been provided as an implementational convenience. Unfortunately, the use of these types of classes can rapidly decrease code readability. Use with care. Nested and inner classes have a special relationship to the outer class which defines them: Access to private variables and methods.

14. Nested Classes Nested classes are defined WITHIN another class They are defined using the static keyword The nested class is defined as part of the outer class. It can only be referenced through the outer class. public class LinkedList { private static class LinkedListNode { [...] } public static class LinkedListStats { [...] } // Create an instance of the nested class LinkedListStats LinkedList.LinkedListStats x = new LinkedList.LinkedListStats(); // Illegal access to private nested class -- compiler error LinkedList.LinkedListNode y = new LinkedList.LinkedListNode();

15. Member Classes Member classes are similar to nested classes, except they are not static. They are used in the same manner as instance variables. public class LinkedList { public class LinkedListStats { [...] } LinkedList aList = new LinkedList(); LinkedList.LinkedListStats aStat = new aList.LinkedListStats();

16. Local Classes Local classes are defined within a method The scope is limited to the method Used for small helper classes whose applicability is within the method only public class LinkedList { public void traverse() { class MyIterator extends Iterator { public void doTraversal() { [...] } MyIterator anIterator = new MyIterator(); [...] }

17. Anonymous inner Classes Anonymous classes have no name They are declared and instantiated in one step. Used to create a quick subclass of an existing class where one or more method is overridden. public class LinkedList { private ListChangeDelegate aDelegate; public LinkedList() { aDelegate = new ListChangeDelegate(){ [ override methods here ] }

18. Inner classes --.class file names All Java classes are compiled to their own.class file The compiler gives special names to inner class.class files For nested, member and local classes Outer$Inner.class For anonymous classes Outer$1.class Outer$2.class All inner class.class files contain the $ character. To avoid confusion, it is recommended that one avoids naming classes using the $ character.

19. Non-public classes Non-public classes do not need to be defined within another class. They can be defined externally to a class, but within the same.java file. public class LinkedList { [... Linked List class definition and Methods...] } class LinkedListNode { [... helper class definition... ] } class LinkedListStats { [... another helper class definition... ] } in file LinkedList.java: