1. Critical lines and points in the QCD phase diagram Critical lines and points in the QCD phase diagram

2. Understanding the phase diagram

3. nuclear matter B,isospin (I 3 ) spontaneously broken, S conserved quark matter : superfluid B spontaneously broken quark-gluon plasma “deconfinement” Phase diagram for m s > m u,d

4. Order parameters Nuclear matter and quark matter are separated from other phases by true critical lines Nuclear matter and quark matter are separated from other phases by true critical lines Different realizations of global symmetries Different realizations of global symmetries Quark matter: SSB of baryon number B Quark matter: SSB of baryon number B Nuclear matter: SSB of combination of B and isospin I 3 Nuclear matter: SSB of combination of B and isospin I 3 neutron-neutron condensate neutron-neutron condensate

5. “minimal” phase diagram for equal nonzero quark masses “minimal” phase diagram for equal nonzero quark masses

6. Endpoint of critical line ? Endpoint of critical line ?

7. How to find out ? How to find out ?

8. Methods Methods Lattice : You have to wait until chiral limit Lattice : You have to wait until chiral limit is properly implemented ! is properly implemented ! Models : Quark meson models cannot work Models : Quark meson models cannot work Higgs picture of QCD ? Higgs picture of QCD ? Experiment : Has T c been measured ? Experiment : Has T c been measured ? Indications for Indications for first order transition ! first order transition !

9. Lattice

10. Lattice results e.g. Karsch,Laermann,Peikert Critical temperature in chiral limit : N f = 3 : T c = ( 154 ± 8 ) MeV N f = 2 : T c = ( 173 ± 8 ) MeV Chiral symmetry restoration and deconfinement at same T c

11. pressure pressure

12. realistic QCD precise lattice results not yet available precise lattice results not yet available for first order transition vs. crossover for first order transition vs. crossover also uncertainties in determination of critical temperature ( chiral limit …) also uncertainties in determination of critical temperature ( chiral limit …) extension to nonvanishing baryon number only for QCD with relatively heavy quarks extension to nonvanishing baryon number only for QCD with relatively heavy quarks

13. Models

14. Analytical description of phase transition Needs model that can account simultaneously for the correct degrees of freedom below and above the transition temperature. Needs model that can account simultaneously for the correct degrees of freedom below and above the transition temperature. Partial aspects can be described by more limited models, e.g. chiral properties at small momenta. Partial aspects can be described by more limited models, e.g. chiral properties at small momenta.

15. Chiral quark meson model Limitation to chiral behavior Limitation to chiral behavior Small up and down quark mass Small up and down quark mass - large strange quark mass - large strange quark mass Particularly useful for critical behavior of second order phase transition or near endpoints of critical lines Particularly useful for critical behavior of second order phase transition or near endpoints of critical lines (see N. Tetradis for possible QCD-endpoint ) (see N. Tetradis for possible QCD-endpoint )

16. Quark descriptions ( NJL-model ) fail to describe the high temperature and high density phase transitions correctly High T : chiral aspects could be ok, but glue … (pion gas to quark gas ) (pion gas to quark gas ) High density transition : different Fermi surface for quarks and baryons ( T=0) quarks and baryons ( T=0) – in mean field theory factor 27 for density at given chemical potential – – in mean field theory factor 27 for density at given chemical potential – Confinement is important : baryon enhancement Berges,Jungnickel,… Berges,Jungnickel,… Chiral perturbation theory even less complete

17. Universe cools below 170 MeV… Both gluons and quarks disappear from Both gluons and quarks disappear from thermal equilibrium : mass generation thermal equilibrium : mass generation Chiral symmetry breaking Chiral symmetry breaking mass for fermions mass for fermions Gluons ? Gluons ? Analogous situation in electroweak phase transition understood by Higgs mechanism Analogous situation in electroweak phase transition understood by Higgs mechanism Higgs description of QCD vacuum ? Higgs description of QCD vacuum ?

18. Higgs picture of QCD “spontaneous breaking of color “ “spontaneous breaking of color “ in the QCD – vacuum in the QCD – vacuum octet condensate octet condensate for N f = 3 ( u,d,s ) for N f = 3 ( u,d,s ) C.Wetterich, Phys.Rev.D64,036003(2001),hep-ph/0008150

19. Higgs phase and confinement can be equivalent – then simply two different descriptions (pictures) of the same physical situation then simply two different descriptions (pictures) of the same physical situation Is this realized for QCD ? Necessary condition : spectrum of excitations with the same quantum numbers in both pictures - known for QCD : mesons + baryons - - known for QCD : mesons + baryons -

20. Quark –antiquark condensate

21. Octet condensate ≠ 0 : ≠ 0 : “Spontaneous breaking of color” “Spontaneous breaking of color” Higgs mechanism Higgs mechanism Massive Gluons – all masses equal Massive Gluons – all masses equal Eight octets have vev Eight octets have vev Infrared regulator for QCD Infrared regulator for QCD

22. Flavor symmetry for equal quark masses : for equal quark masses : octet preserves global SU(3)-symmetry octet preserves global SU(3)-symmetry “diagonal in color and flavor” “diagonal in color and flavor” “color-flavor-locking” “color-flavor-locking” (cf. Alford,Rajagopal,Wilczek ; Schaefer,Wilczek) (cf. Alford,Rajagopal,Wilczek ; Schaefer,Wilczek) All particles fall into representations of All particles fall into representations of the “eightfold way” the “eightfold way” quarks : 8 + 1, gluons : 8 quarks : 8 + 1, gluons : 8

23. Quarks and gluons carry the observed quantum numbers of isospin and strangeness of the baryon and vector meson octets ! They are integer charged!

24. Low energy effective action γ=φ+χγ=φ+χ

25. …accounts for masses and couplings of light pseudoscalars, vector-mesons and baryons !

26. Phenomenological parameters 5 undetermined parameters 5 undetermined parameters predictions predictions

27. Chiral perturbation theory + all predictions of chiral perturbation theory + determination of parameters

28. Chiral phase transition at high temperature High temperature phase transition in QCD : Melting of octet condensate Melting of octet condensate Lattice simulations : Deconfinement temperature = critical temperature for restoration of chiral symmetry Why ? Why ?

29. Simple explanation : Simple explanation :

30. Higgs picture of the QCD-phase transition A simple mean field calculation gives roughly reasonable description that should be improved. A simple mean field calculation gives roughly reasonable description that should be improved. T c =170 MeV T c =170 MeV First order transition First order transition

31. Experiment

32. Has the critical temperature of the QCD phase transition been measured ?

33. Heavy ion collision Heavy ion collision

34. Chemical freeze-out temperature T ch =176 MeV Chemical freeze-out temperature T ch =176 MeV hadron abundancies

35. Exclusion argument Exclusion argument hadronic phase with sufficient production of Ω : excluded !! excluded !!

36. Exclusion argument Assume T is a meaningful concept - Assume T is a meaningful concept - complex issue, to be discussed later complex issue, to be discussed later T ch < T c : hadrochemical equilibrium T ch < T c : hadrochemical equilibrium Exclude T ch much smaller than T c : Exclude T ch much smaller than T c : say T ch > 0.95 T c say T ch > 0.95 T c 0.95 < T ch /T c < 1 0.95 < T ch /T c < 1

37. Has T c been measured ? Observation : statistical distribution of hadron species with “chemical freeze out temperature “ T ch =176 MeV Observation : statistical distribution of hadron species with “chemical freeze out temperature “ T ch =176 MeV T ch cannot be much smaller than T c : hadronic rates for T ch cannot be much smaller than T c : hadronic rates for T< T c are too small to produce multistrange hadrons (Ω,..) T< T c are too small to produce multistrange hadrons (Ω,..) Only near T c multiparticle scattering becomes important Only near T c multiparticle scattering becomes important ( collective excitations …) – proportional to high power of density ( collective excitations …) – proportional to high power of density P.Braun-Munzinger,J.Stachel,CW T ch ≈T c

38. T ch ≈ T c T ch ≈ T c

39. Phase diagram Phase diagram R.Pisarski = σ ≠ 0 = σ ≠ 0 <φ>≈0<φ>≈0<φ>≈0<φ>≈0

40. Temperature dependence of chiral order parameter Temperature dependence of chiral order parameter Does experiment indicate a first order phase transition for μ = 0 ? Does experiment indicate a first order phase transition for μ = 0 ?

41. Second order phase transition

42. for T only somewhat below T c : the order parameter σ is expected to the order parameter σ is expected to be close to zero and be close to zero and deviate substantially from its vacuum value deviate substantially from its vacuum value This seems to be disfavored by observation of chemical freeze out !

43. Temperature dependent masses Chiral order parameter σ depends on T Chiral order parameter σ depends on T Particle masses depend on σ Particle masses depend on σ Chemical freeze out measures m/T for many species Chemical freeze out measures m/T for many species Mass ratios at T just below T c are Mass ratios at T just below T c are close to vacuum ratios close to vacuum ratios

44. Ratios of particle masses and chemical freeze out Ratios of particle masses and chemical freeze out at chemical freeze out : ratios of hadron masses seem to be close to vacuum values ratios of hadron masses seem to be close to vacuum values nucleon and meson masses have different characteristic dependence on σ nucleon and meson masses have different characteristic dependence on σ m nucleon ~ σ, m π ~ σ -1/2 m nucleon ~ σ, m π ~ σ -1/2 Δσ/σ < 0.1 ( conservative ) Δσ/σ < 0.1 ( conservative )

45. first order phase transition seems to be favored by chemical freeze out first order phase transition seems to be favored by chemical freeze out …or extremely rapid crossover

46. How far has first order line been measured? How far has first order line been measured? hadrons hadrons quarks and gluons

47. hadronic phase with sufficient production of Ω : excluded !! excluded !! Exclusion argument for large density

48. First order phase transition line First order phase transition line hadrons hadrons quarks and gluons μ=923MeV transition to nuclear nuclear matter matter

49. nuclear matter B,isospin (I 3 ) spontaneously broken, S conserved quark matter : superfluid B spontaneously broken quark-gluon plasma “deconfinement” Phase diagram for m s > m u,d

50. Is temperature defined ? Does comparison with equilibrium critical temperature make sense ?

51. Prethermalization J.Berges,Sz.Borsanyi,CW

52. Vastly different time scales for “thermalization” of different quantities here : scalar with mass m coupled to fermions ( linear quark-meson-model ) ( linear quark-meson-model ) method : two particle irreducible non- equilibrium effective action ( J.Berges et al )

53. Prethermalization equation of state p/ε Prethermalization equation of state p/ε similar for kinetic temperature

54. different “temperatures” different “temperatures”

55. Mode temperature n p :occupation number for momentum p late time: Bose-Einstein or Fermi-Dirac distribution

57. Kinetic equilibration before chemical equilibration Kinetic equilibration before chemical equilibration

58. Once a temperature becomes stationary it takes the value of the equilibrium temperature. Once chemical equilibration has been reached the chemical temperature equals the kinetic temperature and can be associated with the overall equilibrium temperature. Comparison of chemical freeze out temperature with critical temperature of phase transition makes sense

59. Short and long distance degrees of freedom are different ! Short distances : quarks and gluons Short distances : quarks and gluons Long distances : baryons and mesons Long distances : baryons and mesons How to make the transition? How to make the transition?

60. How to come from quarks and gluons to baryons and mesons ? Find effective description where relevant degrees of freedom depend on momentum scale or resolution in space. Find effective description where relevant degrees of freedom depend on momentum scale or resolution in space. Microscope with variable resolution: Microscope with variable resolution: High resolution, small piece of volume: High resolution, small piece of volume: quarks and gluons quarks and gluons Low resolution, large volume : hadrons Low resolution, large volume : hadrons

61. Functional Renormalization Group from small to large scales from small to large scales

62. Exact renormalization group equation

63. Infrared cutoff

64. Nambu Jona-Lasinio model …and more general quark meson models

65. Chiral condensate Chiral condensate

66. Scaling form of equation of state Berges, Tetradis,…

67. temperature dependent masses temperature dependent masses pion mass pion mass sigma mass sigma mass

68. conclusion Experimental determination of critical temperature may be more precise than lattice results Experimental determination of critical temperature may be more precise than lattice results Rather simple phase structure is suggested Rather simple phase structure is suggested Analytical understanding is only at beginning Analytical understanding is only at beginning

69. end

70. Cosmological phase transition… …when the universe cools below 175 MeV 10 -5 seconds after the big bang 10 -5 seconds after the big bang

71. QCD at high density Nuclear matter Heavy nuclei Neutron stars Quark stars …

72. QCD at high temperature Quark – gluon plasma Quark – gluon plasma Chiral symmetry restored Chiral symmetry restored Deconfinement ( no linear heavy quark potential at large distances ) Deconfinement ( no linear heavy quark potential at large distances ) Lattice simulations : both effects happen at the same temperature Lattice simulations : both effects happen at the same temperature

73. “Solution” of QCD Effective action ( for suitable fields ) contains all the relevant information of the solution of QCD Gauge singlet fields, low momenta: Order parameters, meson-( baryon- ) propagators Order parameters, meson-( baryon- ) propagators Gluon and quark fields, high momenta: Perturbative QCD Perturbative QCD Aim: Computation of effective action

74. QCD – phase transition Quark –gluon plasma Quark –gluon plasma Gluons : 8 x 2 = 16 Gluons : 8 x 2 = 16 Quarks : 9 x 7/2 =12.5 Quarks : 9 x 7/2 =12.5 Dof : 28.5 Dof : 28.5 Chiral symmetry Chiral symmetry Hadron gas Hadron gas Light mesons : 8 Light mesons : 8 (pions : 3 ) (pions : 3 ) Dof : 8 Dof : 8 Chiral sym. broken Chiral sym. broken Large difference in number of degrees of freedom ! Strong increase of density and energy density at T c !

75. Spontaneous breaking of color Condensate of colored scalar field Condensate of colored scalar field Equivalence of Higgs and confinement description in real (N f =3) QCD vacuum Equivalence of Higgs and confinement description in real (N f =3) QCD vacuum Gauge symmetries not spontaneously broken in formal sense ( only for fixed gauge ) Gauge symmetries not spontaneously broken in formal sense ( only for fixed gauge ) Similar situation as in electroweak theory Similar situation as in electroweak theory No “fundamental” scalars No “fundamental” scalars Symmetry breaking by quark-antiquark- condensate Symmetry breaking by quark-antiquark- condensate

76. A simple mean field calculation

77. Hadron abundancies Hadron abundancies

78. Bound for critical temperature 0.95 T c < T ch < T c 0.95 T c < T ch < T c not : “ I have a model where T c ≈ T ch “ not : “ I have a model where T c ≈ T ch “ not : “ I use T c as a free parameter and not : “ I use T c as a free parameter and find that in a model simulation it is find that in a model simulation it is close to the lattice value ( or T ch ) “ close to the lattice value ( or T ch ) “ T ch ≈ 176 MeV (?) T ch ≈ 176 MeV (?)

79. Estimate of critical temperature For T ch ≈ 176 MeV : 0.95 < T ch /T c 176 MeV < T c < 185 MeV 176 MeV < T c < 185 MeV 0.75 < T ch /T c 176 MeV < T c < 235 MeV 176 MeV < T c < 235 MeV Quantitative issue matters!

80. Key argument Two particle scattering rates not sufficient to produce Ω Two particle scattering rates not sufficient to produce Ω “multiparticle scattering for Ω-production “ : dominant only in immediate vicinity of T c “multiparticle scattering for Ω-production “ : dominant only in immediate vicinity of T c

81. needed : lower bound on T ch / T c T ch / T c

82. Exclude the hypothesis of a hadronic phase where multistrange particles are produced at T substantially smaller than T c

83. Mechanisms for production of multistrange hadrons Many proposals Hadronization Hadronization Quark-hadron equilibrium Quark-hadron equilibrium Decay of collective excitation (σ – field ) Decay of collective excitation (σ – field ) Multi-hadron-scattering Multi-hadron-scattering Different pictures ! Different pictures !

84. Hadronic picture of Ω - production Should exist, at least semi-quantitatively, if T ch < T c ( for T ch = T c : T ch >0.95 T c is fulfilled anyhow ) ( for T ch = T c : T ch >0.95 T c is fulfilled anyhow ) e.g. collective excitations ≈ multi-hadron-scattering (not necessarily the best and simplest picture ) (not necessarily the best and simplest picture ) multihadron -> Ω + X should have sufficient rate Check of consistency for many models Necessary if T ch ≠ T c and temperature is defined Way to give quantitative bound on T ch / T c

85. Rates for multiparticle scattering 2 pions + 3 kaons -> Ω + antiproton

86. Very rapid density increase …in vicinity of critical temperature Extremely rapid increase of rate of multiparticle scattering processes ( proportional to very high power of density )

87. Energy density Lattice simulations Lattice simulations Karsch et al Karsch et al even more dramatic for first order for first order transition transition

88. Phase space increases very rapidly with energy and therefore with temperature increases very rapidly with energy and therefore with temperature effective dependence of time needed to produce Ω effective dependence of time needed to produce Ω τ Ω ~ T -60 ! τ Ω ~ T -60 ! This will even be more dramatic if transition is closer to first order phase transition

89. Production time for Ω multi-meson scattering π+π+π+K+K -> Ω+p Ω+p strong dependence on “pion” density strong dependence on “pion” density P.Braun-Munzinger,J.Stachel,CW

90. extremely rapid change lowering T by 5 MeV below critical temperature : lowering T by 5 MeV below critical temperature : rate of Ω – production decreases by rate of Ω – production decreases by factor 10 factor 10 This restricts chemical freeze out to close vicinity of critical temperature This restricts chemical freeze out to close vicinity of critical temperature 0.95 < T ch /T c < 1 0.95 < T ch /T c < 1

91. enough time for Ω - production at T=176 MeV : τ Ω ~ 2.3 fm τ Ω ~ 2.3 fm consistency ! consistency !

92. Relevant time scale in hadronic phase rates needed for equilibration of Ω and kaons: ΔT = 5 MeV, F ΩK = 1.13, τ T =8 fm (0.02-0.2)/fm two –particle – scattering :

93. A possible source of error : temperature-dependent particle masses Chiral order parameter σ depends on T chemical freeze out measures T/m !

94. uncertainty in m(T) uncertainty in critical temperature

95. systematic uncertainty : Δσ/σ=ΔT c /T c Δσ is negative

96. conclusion experimental determination of critical temperature may be more precise than lattice results experimental determination of critical temperature may be more precise than lattice results error estimate becomes crucial error estimate becomes crucial

97. Thermal equilibration : occupation numbers Thermal equilibration : occupation numbers

104. Chiral symmetry restoration at high temperature High T SYM =0 =0 Low T SSB =φ 0 ≠ 0 =φ 0 ≠ 0 at high T : less order more symmetry examples: magnets, crystals

105. Order of the phase transition is crucial ingredient for experiments ( heavy ion collisions ) and cosmological phase transition

106. Order of the phase transition

107. First order phase transition First order phase transition

108. Simple one loop structure – nevertheless (almost) exact

109. Flow equation for average potential

110. Critical temperature, N f = 2 J.Berges,D.Jungnickel,… Lattice simulation