1. Bilingualism 1 Everybody knows what bilingual means; yet…as soon as we start trying to define the concept precisely, things get very complicated. This is not just hair splitting: if bilingualism is complex, it is because it is directly related to complex issues (Riley, 1986: 31).

2. Three Questions What is a bilingual society? Where can they be found? What are the functions of and attitudes toward languages in bilingual societies?

3. What is bilingualism?

4. No one speaks the whole of a language ‘Stubs to can wall penetration welds’ are? ‘Injury and tort’ A ‘treble top’

5. Recognizing languages as different tools There are many definitions None is satisfactory

6. One The mastery of two or more languages— bilingualism or multilingualism—is a special skill. Bilingualism and multilingualism are relative terms since individuals vary greatly in types and degrees of language proficiency (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1965).

7. Two Bilingualism is native-like control of two languages…Of course, one cannot define a degree of perfection at which a good foreign speaker becomes a bilingual: the distinction is relative (L. Bloomfield, 1933).

8. Three Bilingualism is understood…to begin at the point where the speaker of one language can produce complete, meaningful utterances in the other language (E. Haugen, 1953)

9. Two Issues Bilingual individuals are part of a society --contact between speakers The relative nature of bilingualism --degrees of bilingualism

10. Relative competence versus relative use. He speaks Swedish and Italian equally well. He speaks Swedish and Italian everyday.

11. Where can we find bilingual societies? Where there is contact between linguistic groups: ---political, economic (Examples: Mexico, USA) Historical and political changes: ---changing borders, (example: Alsace, France) Widespread bilingualism: Swahili, Tanzania

12. Monolingual and bilingual countries Half the population Contradicts unilingualism absolute link to national and individual identity Official bilingualism does not indicate high percentage of bilinguals and vise versa. Examples: France and Tanzania versus Canada and Belgian

13. What are the functions of and attitudes toward languages in bilingual societies? Diaglossia: (Ferguson, 1959) --- high form and low form ----urban (Madina, Ghana) or rural (New Guinea) ---trades and occupations

14. Example of Diaglossia: Paraguay Two languages spoken: Spanish and Guarani Choice of language determined by context Joan Rubin’s four contextual factors: 1. Location of interaction 2. Degree of formality 3. Degree of intimacy 4. Seriousness of discourse

15. Decline of Indigenous languages in bilingual communities Chorti Maya (Mexico) Proximity to dominant language Political and economic factors Upward social mobility

16. Summary Bilingualism is difficult to define ----depending of the purpose of the particular language use More than half of the population is bilingual ---monolingualism versus bilingualism The functions of and attitudes of languages in depend on social contexts ---diaglossia: High and low form: depend on context