1. Chapter 13Kotabe & Helsen's Global Marketing Management, Third Edition, 2004 1 Global Marketing Management Masaaki Kotabe & Kristiaan Helsen Third Edition John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2004

2. Chapter 13Kotabe & Helsen's Global Marketing Management, Third Edition, 2004 2 Chapter 13 Global Pricing

3. Chapter 13Kotabe & Helsen's Global Marketing Management, Third Edition, 2004 3 Chapter Overview 1. Drivers of Foreign Market Pricing 2. Managing Price Escalation 3. Pricing in Inflationary Environments 4. Global Pricing and Currency Movements 5. Transfer Pricing 6. Global Pricing and Antidumping Regulation Regulation 7. Price Coordination

4. Chapter 13Kotabe & Helsen's Global Marketing Management, Third Edition, 2004 4 Chapter Overview (contd.) 8. Pricing Policies and the Euro 9. Countertrade

5. Chapter 13Kotabe & Helsen's Global Marketing Management, Third Edition, 2004 5 Introduction Global pricing is one of the most critical and complex issues in international marketing. Global pricing is one of the most critical and complex issues in international marketing. Price is the only marketing mix instrument that creates revenues. All other elements entail costs. Price is the only marketing mix instrument that creates revenues. All other elements entail costs. A company’s global pricing policy may make or break its overseas expansion efforts. A company’s global pricing policy may make or break its overseas expansion efforts. Multinationals also face the challenges of how to coordinate their pricing across different countries. Multinationals also face the challenges of how to coordinate their pricing across different countries.

6. Chapter 13Kotabe & Helsen's Global Marketing Management, Third Edition, 2004 6 1. Drivers of Foreign Market Pricing Main drivers affecting global pricing: Main drivers affecting global pricing: –Company Goals »Satisfactory ROI »Market Share »Specified Product Goal –Company Costs »Cost-Plus Pricing »Dynamic Incremental Pricing »Incremental Costs

7. Chapter 13Kotabe & Helsen's Global Marketing Management, Third Edition, 2004 7 1. Drivers of Foreign Market Pricing (contd.) Customer Demand Customer Demand Competition Competition –Cross-Border Price Differentials –Nonprice Competition Distribution Channels Distribution Channels –Variations in Trade Margins and Length of Margins –Issues of Everyday Low Prices (EDLP) –Parallel Imports (Gray Market) Government Policies Government Policies

8. Chapter 13Kotabe & Helsen's Global Marketing Management, Third Edition, 2004 8 2. Managing Price Escalation Several options exist to lower the export price: Several options exist to lower the export price: 1. Rearrange the distribution channel 2. Eliminate costly features (or make them optional) 3. Downsize the product 4. Assemble or manufacture the product in foreign markets 5. Adapt the product to escape tariffs or tax levies

9. Chapter 13Kotabe & Helsen's Global Marketing Management, Third Edition, 2004 9 3. Pricing in Inflationary Environments Alternative ways to safeguard against inflation may include: Alternative ways to safeguard against inflation may include: 1. Modify components, ingredients, parts and/or packaging materials. 2. Source materials from low-cost suppliers. 3. Shorten credit terms. 4. Include escalator clauses in long-term contracts. 5. Quote prices in a stable currency. 6. Pursue rapid inventory turnovers.

10. Chapter 13Kotabe & Helsen's Global Marketing Management, Third Edition, 2004 10 3. Pricing in Inflationary Environments (contd.) 7. Draw lessons from other countries. Companies faced with price controls can consider several alternatives: Companies faced with price controls can consider several alternatives: 1. Adapt the product line 2. Shift target segments or markets. 3. Launch new products or variants of existing products. 4. Negotiate with the government. 5. Predict incidence of price controls.

11. Chapter 13Kotabe & Helsen's Global Marketing Management, Third Edition, 2004 11 4. Global Pricing and Currency Movements Currency Gain/Loss Pass Through (see Exhibit Currency Gain/Loss Pass Through (see Exhibit 13-3) 13-3) –Pass-through issue –Pricing-to-market (PTM) –Local-currency price stability (LCPs) Currency Quotation Currency Quotation

14. Chapter 13Kotabe & Helsen's Global Marketing Management, Third Edition, 2004 14 5. Transfer Pricing Sales transactions between related entities of the same companies are called transfer prices. Sales transactions between related entities of the same companies are called transfer prices. Determinants of Transfer Prices: Determinants of Transfer Prices: 1. Market conditions in the foreign country 2. Competition in the foreign country 3. Reasonable profit for foreign affiliate 4. U.S. federal income taxes 5. Economic conditions in the foreign country 6. Import restrictions 7. Customs duties

15. Chapter 13Kotabe & Helsen's Global Marketing Management, Third Edition, 2004 15 5. Transfer Pricing (contd.) 8. Price controls 8. Price controls 9. Taxation in the foreign country 9. Taxation in the foreign country 10. Exchange controls Criteria for making transfer pricing decisions: Criteria for making transfer pricing decisions: –Tax regimes –Local market conditions –Market imperfections –Joint venture partner –Morale of local country managers

16. Chapter 13Kotabe & Helsen's Global Marketing Management, Third Edition, 2004 16 5. Transfer Pricing (contd.) Setting Transfer Prices: Setting Transfer Prices: –Market-based transfer pricing: »Arm’s length prices –Nonmarket-based pricing: »Cost-based pricing »Negotiated pricing –A recent study shows that compliance with financial reporting norms, fiscal and custom rules, and anti-dumping regulations prompt companies to use market-based transfer pricing.

17. Chapter 13Kotabe & Helsen's Global Marketing Management, Third Edition, 2004 17 5. Transfer Pricing (contd.) –Government-imposed market constraints (e.g., import restrictions, price controls, exchange controls) favor nonmarket-based transfer pricing. –Most firms use a mixture of market-based and non-market pricing procedures. Minimizing the Risk of Transfer Pricing Tax Audits: Minimizing the Risk of Transfer Pricing Tax Audits: –Basic Arm’s Length Standard (BALS)

18. Chapter 13Kotabe & Helsen's Global Marketing Management, Third Edition, 2004 18 5. Transfer Pricing (contd.) To minimize the risk of tax audits, decisions should center around the following five questions (see Exhibit 13-6): To minimize the risk of tax audits, decisions should center around the following five questions (see Exhibit 13-6): 1. Do comparable/uncontrollable transactions exist? 2. Where is the most value added? Parent? Subsidiary? 3. Are combined profits of parent and subsidiary shared in proportion to contributions?

19. Chapter 13Kotabe & Helsen's Global Marketing Management, Third Edition, 2004 19 5. Transfer Pricing (contd.) 4. Does the transfer price meet the benchmark set by the tax authorities? 5. Does the tax MNC have the information to justify the transfer prices used?

20. Chapter 13Kotabe & Helsen's Global Marketing Management, Third Edition, 2004 20 6. Global Pricing and Antidumping Regulation Dumping occurs when imports are sold at an “unfair” price. Dumping occurs when imports are sold at an “unfair” price. Voluntary Export Restraint (VER) Voluntary Export Restraint (VER) To minimize risk exposure to antidumping actions, exporters might pursue any of the following marketing strategies: To minimize risk exposure to antidumping actions, exporters might pursue any of the following marketing strategies: –Trading up –Service enhancement –Distribution and communication

21. Chapter 13Kotabe & Helsen's Global Marketing Management, Third Edition, 2004 21 7. Price Coordination The following considerations will be necessary when developing a global pricing strategy: The following considerations will be necessary when developing a global pricing strategy: 1. Nature of customers 2. Amount of product differentiation 3. Nature of channels 4. Nature of competition 5. Market integration 6. Internal organization 7. Government regulation

22. Chapter 13Kotabe & Helsen's Global Marketing Management, Third Edition, 2004 22 7. Price Coordination (contd.) Global-Pricing Contracts –GPCs (see Exhibit 13- 7): Global-Pricing Contracts –GPCs (see Exhibit 13- 7): –Purchasers often demand GPCs from their suppliers. –GPCs can also benefit suppliers. –A GPC can offer the opening toward nurturing a lasting customer relationship. –Small suppliers can use GPCs as a differentiation tool to get access to new accounts.

23. Chapter 13Kotabe & Helsen's Global Marketing Management, Third Edition, 2004 23 7. Price Coordination (contd.) Aligning Pan-Regional Prices Aligning Pan-Regional Prices A Pricing Corridor (to find the middle ground by upping prices in low-price countries and cutting them in high-price countries) works as follows: A Pricing Corridor (to find the middle ground by upping prices in low-price countries and cutting them in high-price countries) works as follows: Step 1. Determine optimal price for each country. Step 2. Find out whether parallel imports (“gray markets”) are likely to occur at these prices. Step 3. Set a pricing corridor.

24. Chapter 13Kotabe & Helsen's Global Marketing Management, Third Edition, 2004 24 7. Price Coordination (contd.) Implementing Price Coordination: Global marketers can choose from four alternatives to promote price coordination within their organizations: Implementing Price Coordination: Global marketers can choose from four alternatives to promote price coordination within their organizations: 1.Economic measures 2.Centralization 3.Formalization 4.Informal coordination

25. Chapter 13Kotabe & Helsen's Global Marketing Management, Third Edition, 2004 25 8. Pricing Policies and the Euro As of January 1, 2002, the euro is the common currency within the 12 EU member states. As of January 1, 2002, the euro is the common currency within the 12 EU member states. Companies operating in the euro-zone will need to make strategic decisions in two areas: Companies operating in the euro-zone will need to make strategic decisions in two areas: 1. Harmonization of Prices 1. Harmonization of Prices –The biggest impact is likely to be price harmonization. 2. Transfer Pricing 2. Transfer Pricing –Prices within the European Union countries will become more transparent.

26. Chapter 13Kotabe & Helsen's Global Marketing Management, Third Edition, 2004 26 9. Countertrade Forms of Countertrade: Forms of Countertrade: –Simple barter –Clearing agreement –Switch trading –Buyback (compensation) –Counterpurchase –Offset Motives behind Countertrade: Motives behind Countertrade: –Gain access to new or difficult markets

27. Chapter 13Kotabe & Helsen's Global Marketing Management, Third Edition, 2004 27 9. Countertrade (contd.) –Overcome exchange rate controls or lack of hard currency –Overcome low country credit worthiness –Increase sales volume –Generate long-term customer goodwill Shortcomings of Countertrade: Shortcomings of Countertrade: –No “in-house” use for goods offered by customers –Timely and costly negotiations

29. Chapter 13Kotabe & Helsen's Global Marketing Management, Third Edition, 2004 29 9. Countertrade (contd.) –Uncertainty and lack of information on future prices –Transaction costs Words of advice regarding countertrade: Words of advice regarding countertrade: 1. Always evaluate the pros and cons of countertrade against other options. 2. Minimize the ratio of compensation goods to cash. 3. Strive for goods that can be used in-house.

30. Chapter 13Kotabe & Helsen's Global Marketing Management, Third Edition, 2004 30 9. Countertrade (contd.) 4. Assess the relative merits of relying on middlemen versus an in-house staff. 5. Check whether the goods are subject to any restrictions. 6. Assess the quality of goods.

31. Chapter 13Kotabe & Helsen's Global Marketing Management, Third Edition, 2004 31 Copyright © John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2004