1. Prof. R. Shanthini Feb 11, 2012 Module 07 Renewable Energy (RE) Technologies & Impacts (continued) - Use of RE sources in electricity generation, in transport, and in other energy consumption modes -Ecological impacts of RE sources, and mitigation measures

2. Prof. R. Shanthini Feb 11, 2012 - Hydroelectric - Solar Photovoltaics (Solar PVs) - Solar Thermal (Solar T), also known as Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) - Wind - Geothermal - Marine (Wave and Tidal) - Biofuels (Biomass, Bioethanol and Biodiesel) RE technology options:

3. Prof. R. Shanthini Feb 11, 2012 Biodiesel Biodiesel can be used in compression ignition engines with little or no modifications. Biodiesel is derived from renewable lipid sources, such as vegetable oil or animal fat. Biodiesel is a mixture of mono-alkyl esters of long chain fatty acids.

4. Prof. R. Shanthini Feb 11, 2012 Biodiesel production (traditional method) Biodiesel is made by chemically combining any natural oil or animal fat (major component of which is triglyceride) with an alcohol (methanol / ethanol / iso-propanol) in the presence of a cataylst (NaOH or KOH) triglyceridsmethanol methyl Ester (biodiesel) glycerol (glycerin) ++ KOH This process is known as transestrification.

5. Prof. R. Shanthini Feb 11, 2012 Biodiesel production (traditional method) Triglyceride Methanol Biodiesel: mixture of methyl esters Glycerol KOH Transestrification is a reaction of an ester with an alcohol to form a different ester.

6. Prof. R. Shanthini Feb 11, 2012 Triglyceride Glycerol

7. Prof. R. Shanthini Feb 11, 2012 Triglyceride to Free fatty acids

8. Prof. R. Shanthini Feb 11, 2012 Free fatty acid (FFA) to biodiesel Free Fatty AcidMethyl esterWater H 2 SO 4 This process is known as estrification (which is a reaction of an acid with an alcohol to form an ester). Methanol Free Fatty AcidSoapWater NaOH This process is known as saponification, in which soap is produced. Base Na

9. Prof. R. Shanthini Feb 11, 2012 Biodiesel feedstock Vegetable oils: - Rape seed/Canola (> 80%) - Soybean (USA, Brazil) - Cotton seed (Greece) - Palm (Malaysia) - Peanut - Sunflower (Italy, France South ) - Linseed & Olive (Spain) - Safflower - Coconut - Jatropha (Nicaragua) - Guang-Pi (China) Animal fats: - Beef tallow (Ireland) - Lard - Poultry fats Waste oils: - Used frying oils (Austria) Other feed stocks: - Algae

10. Prof. R. Shanthini Feb 11, 2012 Biodiesel production process (5 to 25% FFA)

11. Prof. R. Shanthini Feb 11, 2012 Biodiesel blends used in diesel engines B2 – 2% biodiesel and 98% petro diesel B5 – 5% biodiesel and 95% petro diesel B20 – 20% biodiesel and 80% petro diesel http://www.mechanicalengineeringblog.com/tag/biodiesel-chemistry

12. Prof. R. Shanthini Feb 11, 2012 Biodiesel from algae Claimed output of 10,000 gallons of biodiesel per hectare per year.

13. Prof. R. Shanthini Feb 11, 2012 Biodiesel from algae 10,000 gallons of biodiesel per hectare per year = 37854 litres per 2.47 acres per year = 15325 litres per acre per year = 15325 / 160 litres per perch per year = 96 litres per perch per year = 96 /12 litres per perch per month = about 8 litres per perch per month Claimed output of 10,000 gallons of biodiesel per hectare per year.

14. Prof. R. Shanthini Feb 11, 2012 Algae biodiesel life cycle K Sander & GS Murthy from Int J Life Cycle Assess (2010) 15:704–714 Algae harvesting from habitat Culture maintenance/storage Growth in open pond Harvesting Separation of cell components Carbohydrate and protein contents Conversion to biodiesel Transportation and distribution customer Combustion in vehicles

15. Prof. R. Shanthini Feb 11, 2012 Algae biodiesel life cycle K Sander & GS Murthy from Int J Life Cycle Assess (2010) 15:704–714 Manufacture / construction of open pond Manufacture / maintenance of equipment Acquiring resources of manufacture Partial treatment of wastewater Crude oil drilling Crude oil refining Hexane purification Algae harvesting from habitat Culture maintenance/storage Growth in open pond Harvesting Separation of cell components Carbohydrate and protein contents

16. Prof. R. Shanthini Feb 11, 2012 Algae biodiesel life cycle K Sander & GS Murthy from Int J Life Cycle Assess (2010) 15:704–714 Sodium methoxide Catalyst production Salt mining HCl production Conversion to biodiesel Methanol production Natural gas and methane refining Natural gas and methane extraction Metal mining Salt miningNaOH production

17. Prof. R. Shanthini Feb 11, 2012 Algae biodiesel life cycle Manufacture / maintenance of equipment Transportation and distribution customer Combustion in vehicles Acquiring resources of manufacture Crude oil drilling Crude oil refining K Sander & GS Murthy from Int J Life Cycle Assess (2010) 15:704–714

18. Prof. R. Shanthini Feb 11, 2012 Algae biodiesel life cycle K Sander & GS Murthy from Int J Life Cycle Assess (2010) 15:704–714 Hexane purification Algae harvesting from habitat Culture maintenance/storage Growth in open pond Harvesting Separation of cell components Carbohydrate and protein contents When harvested, there is 0.05% algae in wastewater. It has to be brought to 91% algae in wastewater (required by the hexane extraction step). This is achieved by a dewatering process (filtration or centrifugation) followed by drying in a natural gas fired dryer. Algae dewatering is the most significant energy sink in the entire process.

19. Prof. R. Shanthini Feb 11, 2012 Algae biodiesel life cycle K Sander & GS Murthy from Int J Life Cycle Assess (2010) 15:704–714 Algal lipid content (%, w/w) Total energy input (MJ / 1000 MJ algae biodiesel) 402,500 303,292 204,878 156,470 109,665 519,347

20. Prof. R. Shanthini Feb 11, 2012 Algae biodiesel life cycle K Sander & GS Murthy from Int J Life Cycle Assess (2010) 15:704–714 In most algae species, there is typically a larger percentage of carbohydrates than lipids in an algae cell. With lipid removed to produce biodiesel, the remaining carbohydrates makes an excellent feedstock for bioethanol. Every 24 kg of algal biodiesel produced (one functional unit,1,000 MJ algae biodiesel), 28.1 kg carbohydrates and cellulose coproduct are also produced. With less than 2% lignin, bioethanol processing becomes more favourable.

21. Prof. R. Shanthini Feb 11, 2012

22. Life-cycle assessment (LCA) Is it better to use LED lights or CFL lights or incandescent lights? Is electric car better than petrol/diesel car? Is hydroelectricity better than fossil fuel electricity? Is electricity from coal power is better than electricity from nuclear power? How do we answer these questions? We could do LCA analysis.

23. Prof. R. Shanthini Feb 11, 2012 LCA is a tool to assess the potential environmental impacts of product systems or services at all stages in their life cycle – from extraction of resources, through the production and use of the product to reuse, recycling or final disposal. Life-cycle assessment (LCA)

24. Prof. R. Shanthini Feb 11, 2012 Life-cycle assessment (LCA) - LCA determines the environmental and societal impacts (damages, in particular) of products, processes or services through its entire lifecycle. - Environmental and societal impacts means the impacts of use of resources as well as the impacts of wastes generated on the environment and society. - LCA considers all stages of a process, such as raw material (resource) extraction, processing and transport, manufacturing, packaging, distribution, use, and disposal/recycling.

25. Prof. R. Shanthini Feb 11, 2012 LCA is a technique to assess the potential environmental impacts associated with a product or service throughout its life cycle, by: - Defining suitable goal and scope for the LCA study - Inventory analysis - Impact assessment - Interpreting the results Life-cycle assessment (LCA)

26. Prof. R. Shanthini Feb 11, 2012 Inventory analysis provides information regarding consumption of material and energy resources (at the beginning of the cycle) and releases to the environment (during and at the end of the cycle). Impact analysis provides information about the kind and degree of environmental impacts resulting from a complete life cycle of a product or activity. Improvement analysis provides measures that can be taken to reduce impacts on the environment or resources. Source: S. Manahan, Industrial Ecology, 1999 Life-cycle assessment (LCA)

27. Prof. R. Shanthini Feb 11, 2012 Life-cycle analysis must consider - selection of materials, if there is a choice, that would minimise waste - recyclable components - alternate pathways for the manufacturing process or for various parts of it - reusable and recyclable materials Source: S. Manahan, Industrial Ecology, 1999 Life-cycle assessment (LCA)

28. Prof. R. Shanthini Feb 11, 2012 Life-cycle assessment (LCA) LCA looks at products or processes from start to finish. Cradle Gate

29. Prof. R. Shanthini Feb 11, 2012 Life-cycle assessment (LCA) LCA looks at products or processes from start to finish. Coffee producer Gate Grave

30. Prof. R. Shanthini Feb 11, 2012 http://www.sustainability-ed.org.uk/pages/look4-1.htm Cradle Gate Grave

31. Prof. R. Shanthini Feb 11, 2012 Life-cycle assessment (LCA) supply transport manufacturing packaging Use disposal Cradle to Gate ( 4 stages) Cradle to Grave (6 stages)

32. Prof. R. Shanthini Feb 11, 2012 Components of life-cycle assessment:

33. Prof. R. Shanthini Feb 11, 2012 Phases in a life-cycle assessment: ISO 14040 framework Goal and Scope Definition (Determining boundaries for study) Goal and Scope Definition (Determining boundaries for study) Inventory Analysis (Data on inputs and outputs quantities for all relevant processes) Inventory Analysis (Data on inputs and outputs quantities for all relevant processes) Impact Assessment (Contribution to impact categories, such as energy consumption, through normalization and weighing) Interpretation (Major contributions, sensitivity analysis: what can be learned from study?) Interpretation (Major contributions, sensitivity analysis: what can be learned from study?)

34. Prof. R. Shanthini Feb 11, 2012 Phases in a life-cycle assessment: ISO 14040 framework

35. Prof. R. Shanthini Feb 11, 2012 - Tellus Institute Goal definition and Scoping: Level of specificity in the study –Is the product being analyzed specific to a company or a plant? (Two different plants producing the same type of product could have different emission levels, for example) –Or, will we focus on industrial averages (e.g., impacts of using recycled aluminum in a design)?

36. Prof. R. Shanthini Feb 11, 2012 - Tellus Institute Goal definition and Scoping: Level of accuracy in data collection / analysis –Should be high if used in driving public policy –If used in internal decision making for a firm, a reasonable estimate is generally enough

37. Prof. R. Shanthini Feb 11, 2012 - Tellus Institute Goal definition and Scoping: How to display the results. Example: comparing two products –Comparison should be made in terms of equivalent use –Example: bar soap vs. liquid soap; the basis should be an equal number of hand washings

38. Prof. R. Shanthini Feb 11, 2012 An example life-cycle assessment: Osram LCA for the following products: 1,000 hour lifetime for incandescent; 10,000 hour for CFL, and 25,000 hour for LED. Source: www.osram-os.com

39. Prof. R. Shanthini Feb 11, 2012 The 1.7 kg microchip: Environmental implications of the IT revolution Source: http://www.enviroliteracy.org/subcategory.php/334.html by Eric D. Williams, Robert U. Ayres, and Miriam Heller, The 1.7 Kilogram Microchip: Energy and Material Use in the Production of Semiconductor Devices. Environmental Science & Technology (a peer-reviewed journal of the American Chemical Society), 2002, 36 (24), pp 5504–5510 One 32 MB DRAM chip (weight = 2 gram) 1600 g of fossil fuels 71 g of chemicals 32,000 g of water 700 g of elemental gases (mainly nitrogen) An example life-cycle assessment:

40. Prof. R. Shanthini Feb 11, 2012 Primary Energy Consumption An example life-cycle assessment:

41. Prof. R. Shanthini Feb 11, 2012 Primary Energy Consumption An example life-cycle assessment:

42. Prof. R. Shanthini Feb 11, 2012 Primary Energy Consumption Most of the energy use occurs in purchased parts (manufacturing and raw material extraction.) Remanufacturing is best! An example life-cycle assessment:

43. Prof. R. Shanthini Feb 11, 2012 Limitations of LCA: some examples Weights given to different impacts –What is more important? Use of water resources or CO2 emissions? Drawing the boundaries –Cradle to Gate or Cradle to Grave? –Do we consider supporting activities for the system? Example: a warehouse stores the product. Direct energy consumption for the warehouse should be part of the system, but emissions associated with garbage pickup for the facility probability shouldn’t be. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)43

44. Prof. R. Shanthini Feb 11, 2012 Limitations of LCA: some examples Social and economic impacts –Environmental impacts are relatively easy to measure, but socio-economic impacts are difficult to quantify Renewable vs. non-renewable resources Remanufacturing, recycling, and reuse –Consideration of recycling makes significant impact, even though that depends on recycling rates Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)44

45. Prof. R. Shanthini Feb 11, 2012 Further Resources The web has an incredible amount of information on LCA For starters, please check the document “LCA_guide_EPA.pdf” on Angel, which has a more detailed guide to LCA (by the EPA), and it includes a list of software vendors See http://www.life-cycle.org/http://www.life-cycle.org/ Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)45

46. Prof. R. Shanthini Feb 11, 2012 Life cycle assessment of biodiesel production from free fatty acid-rich wastes J. Dufour and D. Iribarren in Renewable Energy 38 (2012) 155-162 Biodiesel production systems considered: - Acid-catalyzed esterification followed by alkali-catalyzed transesterification of waste vegetable oils (used cooking oil) - Esterification and transesterification of beef tallow - Esterification and transesterification of poultry fat - Acid-catalyzed in-situ transesterification of sewage sludges

47. Prof. R. Shanthini Feb 11, 2012 J. Dufour and D. Iribarren in Renewable Energy 38 (2012) 155-162 Impact potentials evaluated: - Global warming (GWP) in kg CO 2 eq. - Acidification (AP) in kg SO 2 eq. - Eutrophication (EP) in kg PO 4 3- eq. - Ozone layer depletion (ODP) in mg CFC-11 eq. - Photochemical oxidant formation (POFP) in kg C 2 H 4 eq. - Cumulative non-renewable energy demand (CED) in GJ eq. Life cycle assessment of biodiesel production from free fatty acid-rich wastes

48. Prof. R. Shanthini Feb 11, 2012 Biodiesel production system J. Dufour and D. Iribarren in Renewable Energy 38 (2012) 155-162 FFA-rich waste Transportation rendering Esterification Trans-esterification Transportation Electricity production Thermal energy production Water suppy Chemicals production Wastes Waste management BiodieselGlycerol Other inputs Other outputs

49. Prof. R. Shanthini Feb 11, 2012 J. Dufour and D. Iribarren in Renewable Energy 38 (2012) 155-162 FFA-rich waste Trans-esterification Transportation Electricity production Thermal energy production Water suppy Chemicals production Wastes Waste management BiodieselGlycerol Other inputs Other outputs Biodiesel production system (for sewage sludges)

50. Prof. R. Shanthini Feb 11, 2012 Inventory of input data for the production of 1 t Biodiesel J. Dufour and D. Iribarren in Renewable Energy 38 (2012) 155-162 waste rendered rendered dried Materials vegetable beef poultry sewage oils tallow fat sludge Lipid feedstock 1205 1015 1013 10,000 kg Methanol 112.67113.32 99.00 670.18 kg Sulphuric acid 0.15 - -76.35 kg Calcium oxide 0.10 - - - kg Water 56.08 71.32 32.00 0.88 kg Sodium hydroxide 9.80 4.00 5.00 - kg Sodium methoxide - 11.00 12.00 - kg Phosphoric acid 7.95 - - - kg Hydrogen chloride - 6.00 7.00 - kg Hexane - - -76.28 kg

51. Prof. R. Shanthini Feb 11, 2012 Inventory of input data for the production of 1 t Biodiesel J. Dufour and D. Iribarren in Renewable Energy 38 (2012) 155-162 waste rendered rendered dried Energy vegetable beef poultry sewage oils tallow fat sludge Thermal (rendering) 1628.93 - - - MJ Electrical (rendering) 133.12 - - - kWh Thermal (esterification) 222.30 175.94 90.04 - MJ Electrical (esterification) 31.43 28.93 10.08 - kWh Thermal (transesterification) 1650.84 1733.48 1886.96 2542.95 MJ Electrical (transesterification) 20.34 30.36 28.98 28.47 kWh

52. Prof. R. Shanthini Feb 11, 2012 Inventory of input data for the production of 1 t Biodiesel J. Dufour and D. Iribarren in Renewable Energy 38 (2012) 155-162 waste rendered rendered dried Transport vegetable beef poultry sewage (by lorry) oils tallow fat sludge To rendering plant 187.76 - - - t km To biodiesel plant 291.31 293.44 292.76 - t km

53. Prof. R. Shanthini Feb 11, 2012 Inventory of output data for the production of 1 t Biodiesel J. Dufour and D. Iribarren in Renewable Energy 38 (2012) 155-162 waste rendered rendered dried Materials vegetable beef poultry sewage oils tallow fat sludge Biodiesel 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 t Glycerol 102.21 115.64 109.00 129.05 kg Salts to landfill 16 9 10 - kg Hazardous liquid waste 30.46 24.00 26.00 - kg Organic waste to landfill 85.40 - - - kg Sludge - - - 2 t

54. Prof. R. Shanthini Feb 11, 2012 J. Dufour and D. Iribarren in Renewable Energy 38 (2012) 155-162 Environmental profile of different transportation diesel fuels

55. Prof. R. Shanthini Feb 11, 2012 J. Dufour and D. Iribarren in Renewable Energy 38 (2012) 155-162 Environmental profile of different transportation diesel fuels

56. Prof. R. Shanthini Feb 11, 2012 J. Dufour and D. Iribarren in Renewable Energy 38 (2012) 155-162 Environmental profile of different transportation diesel fuels

57. Prof. R. Shanthini Feb 11, 2012 J. Dufour and D. Iribarren in Renewable Energy 38 (2012) 155-162 Environmental profile of different transportation diesel fuels

58. Prof. R. Shanthini Feb 11, 2012 J. Dufour and D. Iribarren in Renewable Energy 38 (2012) 155-162 Environmental profile of different transportation diesel fuels

59. Prof. R. Shanthini Feb 11, 2012 Environmental profile of different transportation diesel fuels J. Dufour and D. Iribarren in Renewable Energy 38 (2012) 155-162

60. Prof. R. Shanthini Feb 11, 2012