1. The Evolution of Population: The Mechanisms of Microevolution
I. Evolution (What actually changes?)
A. Gene frequency:
the amount of a particular allele as found in the gene pool
B. Gene Pool:
sum total of all the alleles in a population
Gene Pool A
Time
Gene Pool C
Gene Pool B
Microevolution: The change in gene frequency in a population over time

2. Gene Pool A 100 Organisms Gene Pool B 100 Organisms # # DD 10 DD 25
Phenotype
Genotype #
Phenotype
Genotype
Dark DD 10
Dark DD 25
Time Dd 50 Dd 30
Medium
Medium dd
Light 60
Light dd 25
GF of D = .5
GF of d = .5
GF of D = .25
GF of d = .75
allele
Gene Frequency =
total alleles
(10 x 2) + 30
(25 x 2) + 50
= .25
Gene Frequency D =
Gene Frequency D =
= .5
200
200
(60 x 2) + 30
(25 x 2) + 50
Gene Frequency d =
Gene Frequency d =
= .5
= .75
200
200
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3. The Hardy – Weinberg Theory
II. The Summary
A. States that gene frequencies will not change in a population only due to sexual reproduction (Skip to III. Math Theory)
B. Gene frequencies will not change (stay in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium) unless one or more of the following is taking place:
1. Genetic drift (and/or small population size)
2. Migration of genes from other populations
3. Mutation
4. Selective mating
5. Natural selection
Implication:
The Hardy-Weinberg mathematically proves that microevolution will not take place unless one or more of the above is occurring

4. Assumption: Genes in gene pool interact independently
IV. The Equations
Equation #2
Equation #1
Assumption: Genes in gene pool interact independently
Assumption: Genes found as pairs and interact within organism 2 2
p + q = 1
p + 2pq + q = 1 2
p = gene frequency of dominant allele
p = % homozygous dominant
q = gene frequency of recessive allele 2
q = % homozygous recessive
1 = total genes in gene pool (100%)
2pq = % heterozygous
1 = 100% of individuals
Taste Lab and Application Worksheet

5. V. Concepts Relating to the 5 Hardy-Weinberg Conditions
1. Genetic drift (and/or small population size)
2. Migration of genes from other populations
Large Populations vs Small Populations
(Genetic Drift)
3. Mutation
4. Selective mating
5. Natural selection
Small populations are more susceptible to “genetic drift” (random events that change gene frequencies due to sample size)
a) Bottleneck effect
A random “bottlenecking event” reduces the population number that result in new gene frequencies
b) Founder effect
When a new habitat is colonized, the genotypes of the original colonist will influence the gene frequencies as the population grows

6. B. Migration (Gene Flow)
1. Tends to reduce differences between populations
Extensive gene flow will cause 2 populations to interact as 1 population
C. Mutations
Can immediately affect gene pool by substituting one allele for another
2. Rare; usually harmful
3. Becomes the source of new variations
D. Natural Selection interactions on genetic variations (Phenotypes)
1. Types of genetic variations
a) Polymorphism (morphs)
Two or more phenotypes found in a population. Allows for natural selection to “pick” the most fit

7. b) Geographic Variation
Regional differences in gene frequencies in isolated populations. Example: Island mice
c) Clines
Graded variations within a population along a geographic axis. Environmental gradient may lead to genetic variations Example: Yarrow
d) Balanced Polymorphism
Natural selection stabilizes gene frequencies of 2 or more phenotypes
1) Heterozygous Advantage
Natural selection selects against the homozygous dominant and homozygous recessive. Example Sickle cell anemia
2) Frequency Dependent Selection
The Survival and reproduction of a particular phenotype declines as the phenotype becomes more common. Example: parasite/host relationships
3) Neutral Variation
Variations of no apparent selective advantage. Most variations are probably neutral

8. 2. What is Meant by “Fitness”
a) Darwinian Fitness
The contribution an individual makes to the gene pool of the next generation as compared to other individuals
A “super” phenotype in a sterile organism has no fitness value
Evolutionary impact of a gene is only measured by the continued success of offspring
b) Relative Fitness
A quantitative value that compares the Darwinian fitness of phenotypes found in a population Example Frogs (page 1)

9. Selection favors heterozygous “Heterozygous advantage”
3. Patterns (Modes) of Natural Selection
# of mice
Phenotypes
Lightest
Darkest
Directional Selection
Diversifying Selection
Stabilizing Selection
Selection favors heterozygous “Heterozygous advantage”
Selection favors one extreme
Selection favors both extremes

10. E. Non-Random Mating 1. The disadvantage of sexual reproduction
Asexual reproduction produces more offspring more efficiently (less energy) then sexual reproduction. Is sexual reproduction an unfit phenotype?
Males do not directly produce offspring. Is maleness an unfit phenotype?
2. Sexual Dimorphism
Phenotypic differences between males and females resulting from non-random mating. Example: peacocks and peahens
a. Intrasexual Selection
“within the same sex”
Males compete with their own sex for mates. Males defeat other males for possession of females.
b. Intersexual Selection
“mate choice”
One sex (female) chooses over individuals of the other sex
Examples
Although grebes compete for mates why are the males and females so similar?

11. T H E E N D

12. III. The Math Theory
1. What possible genotypes can results with two random frogs producing offspring from this gene pool?
Gene Pool A D D d d d D d
Frog #1 Chance of picking D = .5
Chance Of picking d = .5 d D D D D d d d D D D d d
Frog #2 Chance of picking D = .5
Chance Of picking d = .5
Gene Frequency D = .5
Gene Frequency d = .5
Probability of genotypes of Possible Offspring .5 .5
As sexual reproduction takes place over time, will the gene frequencies ever change? DD
.25 Dd
.25
NO! .5 Dd
.25 dd
.25 .5
But… Gene Frequencies do change…. WHY?
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13. Genetic Drift due to Small Population Size
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14. An Example of a Bottleneck Event
“earthquake hits flower island”
Gene Frequency
p = q = 0
Slide 5
Gene Frequency
p = q = .3
Gene Frequency
p = q = .17

15. Flower Island “The Sequel”
Founder Effect
Flower Island
Guano Island
Colonization
Gene Frequency
P = q = .3
Gene Frequency
P = q = .5
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16. Morphological Differences in Yarrow at Different Altitudes
Slide 7

17. Density Dependent Selection
Slide 7

18. Slide 8

19. Polymorphic Expressions of the Common Garter Snake
Slide 6

20. Normal cells
Sickle cells
The distribution of the sickle cell gene and the distribution of malaria parasite
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21. 1. Which is the most fit gene?
Gene Pool B 100 Organisms
1. Which is the most fit gene?
Phenotype
Genotype #
“d” is the most fit
Dark DD 10
2. Which is the most “fit” phenotype?
Light colored frog Dd 30
Medium
3. What is the “relative fitness” of the light colored phenotype? dd
Light 60
Most abundant phenotype is always set at a relative fitness of “1”
GF of d = .75
GF of D = .25
4. What is the relative fitness of the medium color phenotype?
The medium colored frogs produce ½ the amount of surviving offspring ( 30/60) so its relative fitness is .5
5. What is the relative fitness of the dark phenotype?
The dark phenotype produces 1/6 the amount of surviving offspring (10/60). Its relative fitness is .17
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22. Directional Selection
Thicker beaks in the dry years are more common due to the abundance of hard seeds and the lack of soft seeds
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23. Black Bellied Seed Crackers
Slide 9
Black Bellied Seed Crackers
Medium beaked birds have a hard time feeding on either hard or soft seed
Smaller beaks feed on soft seeds best
Larger beaks feed on hard seeds best

24. The “Unfit” Nature of Sexual Reproduction
Male
Male
Male
Many offspring; more fitness
Fewer offspring; less fitness
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25. Slide 10

26. Intrasexual selection or Intersexual selection?
Pheasant on bottom-left
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