1. PRESENTED AT THE WAAVP CONFERENCE HELD ON 25 TH TO 30 TH AUGUST 2013 IN PERTH WESTERN AUSTRALIA BY HANNAH W CHEGE DEPARTMENT OF VETERINARY PATHOLOGY, MICROBIOLOGY AND PARASITOLOGY UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI Ecto- and Endo- Parasites in Free Range Chicken in rainy season in Mbeere District, Kenya.

2. Introduction  Poultry production is a growing and an economically important industry in Kenya.  It contributes to the livelihood of approximately 21million people.  Due to shortage of land for agriculture many people in rural areas have opted for poultry production.  Endo and ecto- parasites are common among indigenous chickens  Effects of parasites include: *competition for nutrients *sucking blood causing anaemia *diarrhoea and/or obstruction of intestines.  Parasites leads to lowered productivity (reduction in weight gain, decreased egg production) and/or mortality).  Ecto-parasites are important as blood suckers, vectors or aetiological agents of disease.

3. Village chickens of various ages Flea infestation in chickens Tapeworm infestation in chickens Village chickens scavenging in the field

4. Introduction conti..... Previous studies in Kenya have established:  Prevalence and intensity of endo, ecto and hemoparasites among different age groups and sexes of birds, farm (Sabuni et al., 2010 ; Sabuni et al., 2011.) and market birds(Maina 2005). No studies on  Current prevalence of ecto and haemoparasites compared to Sabuni et al ( 2010;2011).  The prevalence of endoparasites in Mbeere District, Kenya

5. To determine the prevalence of ecto -, endo- and haemo-parasites in free range chickens in Mbeere District, Eastern Province, Kenya. Objective

6. Materials and methods Study area  The study was conducted in Mbeere District, Eastern Province, Kenya  The area has high poultry population of indigenous chicken, approx. 165, 090( KBS)  Bimodal pattern of rainfall long rains (mid- March and June). short rain (October to December).

7. Map showing the study area

8. Materials and methods cont.... Experimental design  A cross-sectional study was conducted in November 2011.  Twenty four birds(24) birds of all ages(chicks <2months, growers 2-8months and adults over 8months) were used to determine the parasite types.  They were obtained using purposive sampling from homesteads that had at least 10 free ranged chickens  The birds were purchased from farmers, labelled put in different cages and transported to Kabete campus (University of Nairobi )for examination.  A post-mortem examination of birds was done as described by Charlton et al 2006.

9. Materials and methods cont.....  Different parts of the gastrointestinal tract were separated, worms identified, counted and recorded as described by Maina (2005).  Chickens’ skin and feathers were examined for ectoparasites as described in the MAFF (1986) and Sabuni (2010). Data analysis  Data entered into Excel spread sheet and analysed using Genstat R Discovery for descriptive stastical analysis.  Prevalence calculated according to Margolis et al., 1982  Stastically significant differences were considered significant when p<0.05

10. Results and discussion  All the birds were infected with endo and ectoparasites giving overall prevalence of 100%. Similar findings  Ethiopia (Abebe et al.,1997),Zimbabwe (Permin et al., 2002) and Kenya(Maina 2005; Mungube et al 2008)) and Sabuni et al., 2010). Table 1: Summary of ectoparasites found in different age groups of chickens Age group of chickens Number of birds Flea Prevalence(%) Lice Prevalence(%) Ticks prevalence(%) Mites prevalence(%) Echidnophaga gallinacea Menopon gallinae Menacanthus stramineus Liperus caponis Gonoides gigas Argas persicusDermanyssus gallinae Knemidocoptes mutans Chicks771(5/7) 100(7/7)--43(3/7)71(5/7)- Growers850(4/8)100(8/8) 25(2/8) 063(5/8)- Adults967(6/9)100(9/9) 67(6/8)22(629)33(3/9)5 6(5/9)44(4/9) Table 1: Summary of ectoparasites found in different age groups of chickens

11. Figure10: Menacanthus stramineus Menacathus stramineus Gonoides gigas Knemidocoptes mutans Dermanyssus gallinae Ectoparasites

12. Results and discussion cont........  High prevalence of ectoparasites-poor hygiene on farms, lack of control measures  Lice were the most prevalent ectoparasites(100%) *Similar finding in Kashmir valley (Salam et al., 2009), Ethiopia (Mekuria et al., 2010) and in Kenya (Sabuni et al., 2010)  The most prevalent louse was Menacanthus stramineus contrary to Sabuni et al., 2011where Menopon gallinae was predominant.  Argas persicus- least(25%) which was slightly lower(Sabuni et al., 2010)- nocturnal behaviour  Knemidocoptes mutans had a lower prevalence due to cold temperatures or individual health management system  Present in adults associated with long period exposure

13.  Echidnophaga gallinacea had a prevalence of 63%-slightly lower than previous findings by Mungube et al 2008, Sabuni et al 2010 *Neglect by farmers to use insecticides *mud walls chickens houses  There were no significant differences in the prevalence of the ecto- parasites among the age groups Results and discussion cont.......

14. Results and Discussion cont......... Parasites recovered in gastrointestinal-nematodes and cestodes Table 2: Summary of endoparasites (nematodes) in different chicken age groups Age group of chickens No. of birdsHeterakis species prevalence(%) H.isolonche Prevalence(%) Heterakis gallinarum Subulura brumpti prevalence Gongylonema ingluvicola prevalence(%) Tetrameres species prevalences(%) Chicks786(6/7) -71(5/7)14(1/7)29(2/7) Growers8100(8/8)50(4/8)-63(5/8)25(2/8)63(5/8) Adults9100(9/9)89(8/9)44(4/9)78(7/9)44(4/9)78(7/9) Table 2: Summary of endoparasites (nematodes) in different chicken age groups

15. Results and Discussion continued  All chickens had more than one species of gastrointestinal worms.  Heterakis species- most prevalent(95.8%) with H.isolonche(72.26%) being the most prevalent. Similar findings have been reported in Kenya(Maina 2005).This was accounted by the fact that most farmers dewormed their chicken using Ascarex(Piperazine citrate) not effective against Heterakis species  Subulura brumpti also prevalent(70.8%) –similar findings reported in Kenya(Maina 2005).  High prevalence of nematodes accounted by soil especially when humid and warm served as important reservoir and transmission site for external larval stages of helminths.

16. Nematodes Male Heterakis isolonche with two equal spicules Male Subulura brumpti with two equal spicules Gongylonema ingluvicola- showing bosses Male T etramere head

17. Results cont.............. AgeNumber of birds Cestodes species prevalences in % Raillietina echinobothrida Raillietina tetragona Choanotaenia infundibulum Hymenolepsis cantaniana Chicks771(5/7)57(4/7)14(1/7)- Growers875(6/8)38(3/8)-13(1/8) Adults989(8/9)67(6/9)11(1/9)-  Most birds infested with Cestodes especially Railletina echinobothrida (79.2%) the least was H.cantaniana (4%)  There were no significant differences in prevalence of cestodes among the age groups (p<0.05) Table 3:Summary of cestodes found in different age groups of chickens

18. Results and discussion cont....  Slightly higher to the results in Kenya(Maina, 2005; Mungube et al., 2008) and in Zimbabwe (Permin et al., 2002).  High prevalence of cestodes was due to the scratching habit of the chicken- cow dung look for maggots whose intermediate host is Musca domestica (Dube et al., 2010)

19. Head of Raillietina tetragona with oval suckers

20. AgeNumber of birds Haemoparasites prevalences(%) Plasmodium species Aegyptinella pullorum Eperythrozoon species Leucocytozoon schoutedeni Chicks757(4/7)-14(1/7) Growers888(7/8)13(1/8)40(2/8)38(3/8) Adults989(8/9)-11(1/9)33(3/9) There were no significant differences in prevalence of haemoparasites among the age groups (p<0.05). Results and discussion cont.............. Table 4:Summary of different haemoparasites in different chicken age groups

21. Results and discussion continuation  Haemoparasites recorded with a prevalence of 79.16% similar to *findings in Kenya (Sabuni et al 2011).Variation in prevalences of haemoparasites due to variation in appearance of vectors(Permin et al 2002)  Plasmodium gallinaceum was the most prevalent(79.16%) due favourable cold weather conditions for the mosquitoes.  Slightly higher than that recorded * Kenya( Sabuni et al., 2011) *Zimbabwe (Permin et al.,2002)  Leucocytozoon schoutedeni also present but lower rate of 6% than that recorded in Kenya(Sabuni et al., 2011).  Aegyptinella pullorum was the least 4.17%-accounted by presence of ticks

22. Leucocytozoon schoutedeni Plasmodium gallinaceum in the red blood cells

23. Conclusion  Endo and ecto parasites are common in the village chickens in study area.  Compared to 2008 there was no difference in the prevalence of the parasites.  There is therefore need for vigorous control measures

24. Acknowledgement  The authors would like to thank the following,  RUFORUM for their sponsorship and funding of the project.  The University of Nairobi for providing the work space and facilities.  World Association for the Advancement of Veterinary Parasitology (WAAVP).  Richard Otieno for his technical assistance  The farmers of Mbeere for their corporation