1. Ethics: The Greeks Plato & Aristotle

3. Plato (427 - 347 B.C.E) Discusses Ethics using the doctrine of: Teleology: all things have a distinct purpose: fulfilling this purpose makes them “good.” A pen,for example, should write cleanly and evenly, and not leak.

4. Teleology of Humans In Plato’s system, humans also have a distinct purpose, defined by 3 aspects of ourselves: Appetite Spirit Reason

5. Appetite This lowest of the Aspects is largely biological and instinctive - our basic needs, etc. Our drive for material possessions is an example of this aspect of human nature.

6. Spirit This Middle Aspect concerns our drive towards action - it serves as the source of courage, determination, etc. It is Spirit which causes us to seek glory, honor, and fame, for example.

7. Reason Reason gives us the ability to think, measure, and understand before we act! The highest of the 3 Aspects of Human Nature, it seeks knowledge and wisdom, and has become the basis of all philosophy and science.

8. The Human Good The highest purpose of humankind, for Plato, occurs when all 3 of these Aspects: Appetite, Spirit, and Reason, act in harmony – in balance. When we live like this, we are living at our highest potential.

9. The Philosopher Ruler The person who acts at this level, in balance with all of their Aspects, is called the Philosopher Ruler in Plato’s system. These individuals are not slaves to any of the Aspects, but in complete control of them, and of themselves.

11. Aristotle (384 - 322 B.C.E) Studied under Plato for 20 years, tutored Alexander the Great. A teleologist like Plato, discussed Ethics too, with “happiness” as the ultimate good. He believed that we all want to be happy, although we each define this differently from others.

12. Happiness Defined Aristotle decided that most folks needed help defining happiness in order to arrive at their ultimate purpose. To do this, he developed a system defining 2 types of “ends” - instrumental and intrinsic.

13. Instrumental Ends An instrumental end is an act performed as a means to an end. We get a job in order to make $ - we don’t get the job just so we can work! Happiness, then, is beyond an act that is merely instrumental.

14. Intrinsic Ends Intrinsic ends, however, we value for what they are, not because they lead to something else. The $ we make at work is spent having fun - this act of having fun doesn’t have to lead anywhere else, so happiness is found here.

15. Where Does This Lead? Aristotle, as a teleologist, suggested that our ultimate purpose was to live in the highest intrinsic moment. Since we alone on Earth can think, this moment has to be about exploring the deepest levels of thought and reason, and acting accordingly.

16. Thought As Totality Aristotle saw that we have to push ourselves beyond Self and recognize Other - everything outside the Self – or we cannot live intrinsically. Recognizing this, he saw that the ethical act was the one that included everyone, without excluding the self.

17. The Golden Mean This tension of opposites led Aristotle to explore and seek the middle in all things. For example, In seeing that neither cowardice or recklessness was reasonable, he defined the middle as ‘courage.’ All Ethical Ideals, for Aristotle, are found in this middle between extremes: The Golden Mean.