1. ARISTOTLE

2. ARISTOTLE (384-322 B.C.) Founder of every science or domain of study known to humans PhysicsLiterary Criticism ChemistryAnthropology BiologyEthics MetaphysicsPolitical science MetereologyPsychology Logic

3. Original contributions to philosophy after Aristotle Augustine – Theory of the Will Thomas d’Aquino – Phil. of Human Nature Hegel – Dialectic, elaboration of Aristotle Marx – Political Economy & Social Psychology – first major advance beyond Aristotle - but based on Aristotle, - called «the Aristotle of the 19th century» Heidegger – Phenomenology – Aristotelian psychology

4. Modernists reject Aristotle Descartes – his skepticism became basis of individualistic exploitation of community Locke – skepticism leads to theory of property rejecting Aristotle’s understanding of individual within community Smith – complete rejection of Aristotle’s theory of moral economy – Bush-style free enterprise

5. ARISTOTLE (384-322 B.C.) born Macedonia 15 yrs after d. of Socrates student at Plato’s Academy at age 17 Collaborates with Plato on dialogues - disagreed over essential realities of our world - Forms vs. Substances (living organisms) Leaves Academy after Plato’s death pursues research in biology Tutor of Alexander Founds Lyceum in Athens (334 BC)

6. Raphael, The School at Athens. Vatican museums.

7. Nicomachean Ethics Reading next 2 weeks

8. The complete ‘good’ (NE i.7—key chapter) - ‘what is intrinsically worth pursuing is more complete than what is worth pursuing for something else’ - the ‘intrinsically choiceworthy’ ‘most chiceworthy of all things’ - ‘self-sufficient’ = Happiness (eudaimonia), but this is ‘commonplace’—what does it mean?

9. Happiness (eudaimonia) Eudaimonia ‘living well,’ ‘doing well’ ‘Not a state’ of mind (EN x.6), ‘an activity rather than a state’ So Aristotle doesn’t mean the way you feel eating ice cream or going shopping Aristotle: Maybe, we can understand happiness if we understand function of human

10. Aristotle on function (ergon) in general ‘Everything is defined by its ergon and capacity’ (Politics, Bk.i, ch. 2.1253a23) Ergon = function, work, product Homonymous E.g., function (ergon) of house builder is to build houses (product= ergon) for other members of the community: this is her/his work (ergon).

11. Aristotle on function (ergon)— cont. E.g., a doctor is the ergon he actualizes: it is easy, Aristotle says, to know various remedies for illness, but how to dispense them and to whom and when, ‘that much a function (ergon) is what it is to be a doctor’ (NE v.9.1137a16). If something loses its function, ceases to be. An eye that loses capacity to see no longer an eye, except homonymously

12. What is function of human being? (NE i.7) Functions of craftsmen Flute player, carpenter, doctor Not function of individual parts, or function(s) we share with animals or plants Function of living thing involves activity (energeia), the actuality of living = activity of the soul or life-principal (psuche) Since reason distinctive of humans, ‘function of human involves activity in accord w. reason’

13. Function performed well if performed in accordance with virtue of the thing E.g., knife, goat Conclusion about happiness ‘the human good turns out to be activity of soul in accord with virtue’ Let’s examine the parts of this statement: ‘Soul’ (Psuche) ‘Virtue’ (arete)

14. Psuche = ‘soul’ or ‘life-force’ Nothing to do with religion Greek belief that all living things possess some life principal or force Plants, animals, humans – all have soul, but differ in capacities Ensouled things are substances. Psuche is form of the thing What does it mean to say soul is ‘form’?

15. Form and matter Aristotle says everything that exists in our world is a composite of form and matter Form is nature or whatness of a thing Example of bronze sphere, as teaching tool to introduce more advanced case of form as soul.

19. Form & matter II The form sphere provides shape for bronze scrap to be worked into bronze sphere. Sphere is whatness of bronze sphere. Soul understood by its capacities, i.e., what organism can do.

20. Capacities of psuche Nutritive – shared with plants & animals Perceptual & locomotive – shared w animals Intellective/rational – distinctly human For happiness to be human, must involve exercise of intellective/rational capacity Aristotle says people who do not live by intellect cannot be happy (EN x.9)

21. Intellective capacity Activity (energeia) of Intellective capacity is form- generating & form-perceiving. Same forms that are nature or whatness of things are forms in intellect by which we perceive those things. We acquire forms through experience with things that embody them. E.g., bronze sphere embodies form ‘sphere’.

22. Aristotle rejects skepticism So, Aristotle argues that knowledge is based on an identity between the knower and the known. That is one result of his theory that all things are composites of form and matter. Ergo, Aristotle rejects skepticism of Descartes.

23. Virtue Remember Aristotle’s definition of happiness: ‘activity/actuality of soul in accord with virtue’ He adds: ‘and if there are more virtues than one, then in accord with best and most complete virtue’ (i.7) Cf. list of virtues, right column last table Best and most complete virtue is JUSTICE.

24. Justice “Justice is the only virtue that seems to be another person’s good, for it is related to another, for it does what benefits another” (EN 1130a3-4). Justice not a matter of fairness, but rather of helping another.

25. Justice in economic relations Primary example of justice in Aristotle’s theory of exchange: a person wealthier or more powerful helps another in their mutual exchange of goods, s/he loses money to the other in the transaction.

26. Conclusion: what is happiness? Happiness is fulfillment of the human function of activity of soul in accordance with the virtue of justice to benefit others as much as I am able.