1. Taxonomy
Domains and Kingdoms

2. What are we learning today?
Benchmarks
Learning Objectives
SC.912.L.15.6 – Discuss distinguishing characteristics of the domains and kingdoms of living organisms. (AA)
15.4—Describe how and why organisms are hierarchically classified and based on evolutionary relationships.
I will classify organisms based on the distinguishing characteristics of the domains and kingdoms of living organisms.
I will describe how and why organisms are hierarchically classified and based on evolutionary relationships.

3. WhY DO we organize things?
Classify, or organize, the following terms into groups.
South America Monroe El Portal Asia Dade
Montana Canada Haiti North America Miami
Aventura Palm Beach Mexico United States
Africa France Alabama Florida Europe
Illinois Alaska Hawaii Broward Martin
Hialeah Little Haiti
To the Teacher
Typically, classification is considered to be the placing of similar objects into similar groups. Are there people you call your friends and others you can't stand? You have grouped these people based on something you personally determined.
Discuss with students that classification helps us organize knowledge. They should recognize the groups of words as belonging to the following categories:
Continents: South America, Asia, North America, Africa, Europe
Countries: Canada, Haiti, Mexico, United States, France
States: Montana, Alabama, Florida, Illinois, Alaska, Hawaii
Counties: Monroe, Broward, Dade, Palm Beach, Martin
Cities: El Portal, Aventura, Miami, Hialeah, Florida City
Use the city of Miami to point out how it fits into a much larger category with other cities and so on. Relate this idea to taxonomy, a science where scientists group living things into categories.

4. What is the Essential question?
Try to imagine the problems faced by the biologists of several hundred years ago as they tried to find patterns in the vast diversity of life. What are some similarities that you might use to try to put the following organisms into related groups?
an octopus, a fly, a fish, a dog, and earthworm,, an apple tree, a mushroom, a butterfly, a lobster, a rose bush, a bird, algae, a bat, a snail,

5. Why do biologists classify?
Biologists have identified and named about 2 million species so far.
Scientists estimate that there are about 8 million additional species yet to be discovered.
Taxonomy is the discipline where scientists classify and assign each organism a universally accepted name.

6. How Has Classification Changed Since the 1700’s?
1977 – Research by Carl Woese led scientists to split Monera into two kingdoms: Eubacteria and Archaeabacteria
1753 – Linnaeus introduced his two-kingdom system which included Plantae and Animalia
1938 – American Biologist Herbert Copeland argued that all prokaryotes deserved their own kingdom, Monera
1700
1800
1900
2000
1866 – German biologist Ernst Haeckel proposes moving all single-celled organisms to the Kingdom Protista
1959 – American ecologist Robert Whittaker proposed that fungi should be placed in their own kingdom because of how they feed

7. We Classify Organisms into Kingdoms Based on 4 Criteria…
1. Is its body made up of 1 cell or many cells?
2. Does its cell(s) have a nucleus or not?
3. Does the organism make its own food or is it a consumer?
4. Does it have any other special characteristics that set it apart from other organisms?

8. What are the different types of cells?
The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all known living organisms.
It is the smallest unit of life that is classified as a living thing.
Organisms can be classified as unicellular (its whole body is a single cell; includes bacteria, protista, some fungi)
Or multicellular (many cells make up its body; includes some fungi, all plants and all animals)

9. What are Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes?
Cells fall into two broad categories, depending on whether they contain a nucleus
Eukaryotes are cells that contain a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles
Eu- means true -karyote means nucleus
Prokaryotes are cells that DO NOT contain a nucleus or membrane-bound organelles. THESE WERE THE FIRST LIVING THINGS!
Pro- means before -karyote means nucleus

10. How are Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes similar?
Both eukaryotes and prokaryotes have
a cell membrane
genetic material (DNA)
ribosomes
cytoplasm
Ask students why do they think these four particular structures are common to all cells

11. How do Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes differ?
Nucleus is absent
No membrane-bound organelles
Most 1-10 um in size
Evolved 3.5 billion years ago FIRST LIVING THINGS
Only bacteria and archaeabacteria
Nucleus is present
Many membrane-bound organelles
Many um in size
Evolved 1.5 billion years ago MORE RECENT
All other kingdoms (animal, plant, fungi, and protist)

12. What is The Three-Domain System?
The domain is the largest category of classification.
The three domains are: Eukarya, Bacteria, and Archaea.

13. Summary of characteristics of the Six Kingdoms Which very important characteristic is missing??
Students must take notes about the characteristics of the cell types of each particular kingdom.

14. What makes up the Kingdom ArchaeaBacteria?
Corresponds to the domain Archae.
Unicellular and prokaryotic organisms live in some of the most extreme environments on our planet.
Many of these bacteria can survive only in the absence of oxygen.
Students must take notes about the characteristics of this particular domain.
Cell membranes contain unusual lipids that are not found in any other organism.

15. What is the Kingdom EuBacteria?
Corresponds to the domain bacteria.
Members are unicellular and prokaryotic.
Cells have a thick, rigid cell wall containing peptidoglycan.
Ecologically diverse, ranging from free-living soil organisms to deadly parasites.
Some need O2, other are killed by it.
Students must take notes about the characteristics of this particular domain.
Went from a 5 to 6 domain kingdom…now we have

16. What makes up the Domain Eukarya?
Finished with that group—Moving into The other 4 kingdoms
These 4 kingdoms belong under the same domain (the one with nuclei)
Eu-true karya-nucleus
Students must take notes about the characteristics of this particular domain.
Consists of all organisms that have a nucleus.
Composed of protists, fungi, plants, and animals.

17. Animals-Like Protists Plant-Like Protists
Some protozoans have properties of both plants and animals.
Live in water, soil, and in the bodies of animals.
Most are harmless, but a few cause disease.
Have different methods of moving:
Flagellum
Cilia
Pseudopods
Algae are plant-like because they do photosynthesis.
Simpler than plants
Live in lakes, streams, rivers, ponds, oceans.
Algae is autotrophic.
Food source for many aquatic organisms– form the base of the food web

18. What is in the Kingdom Fungi?

19. What are the Characteristics of The Kingdom Fungi?
Eukaryotic
Heterotrophs
Cell wall with chitin
Most feed on dead or decaying organic matter.
Fungi secrete digestive enzymes into their food source, before absorbing the smaller food molecules into their bodies.
Most multicellular, some are unicellular
Students must take notes about the specific characteristics of this Kingdom.

20. What is the Kingdom Fungi?
Fungi release special chemicals on dead plant and animal matter.
These chemicals break down, or decompose, the dead matter.
This decomposed matter is later absorbed by the fungus or the soil.
Students must take notes about the characteristics of this particular Kingdom.

21. What organisms are in the Kingdom Plantae?
Cadiovascular plants

22. What organisms are in the Kingdom Plantae?
Trees, grasses, ferns, and mosses.
Nonmotile, meaning they can not move from place to place.
They are photosynthetic autotrophs.
Multicellular
Cell walls contain cellulose
Students must take notes about the characteristics of this particular Kingdom.

23. What makes up the Kingdom Animalia?
We think of animals that only belong in a zoo, but there is a whole mico world that consists of much smaller animals.

24. What are the characteristics of the Kingdom animalia?
Eukaryote
Multicellular
Heterotroph
No cell wall or chloroplasts

25. What is the three-domain system?
All organisms evolved from cells that formed over 3 b.y.a.
Domain Archaea corresponds to the Kingdom Archaebacteria
Domain Bacteria corresponds to the Kingdom Eubacteria
Domain Eukaria includes the Kingdoms Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia

26. Taxonomy AND CLADISTICS
Topic 9: Day 2
SC.912.L.15.5 – Explain the reasons for changes in how organisms are classified.
Taxonomy AND CLADISTICS

27. What are we learning today?
Benchmarks
Learning Objectives
SC.912.L.15.4 – Describe how and why organisms are hierarchically classified and based on evolutionary relationships.
SC.912.L.15.5 – Explain the reasons for changes in how organisms are classified.
Explain the difference between evolutionary classification and Linnaean classification.
Analyze a cladogram to recognize the concepts of common ancestry and degrees of evolutionary relationship.
Describe how DNA and RNA can help scientists determine evolutionary relationships

28. How will you classify the following organisms?
To The Teacher: Sugar gliders and flying squirrels look amazingly similar. They are both furry animals of about the same size, with big eyes and a white belly. And they both glide from treetops using a thin piece of skin that is stretched between their legs. This piece of skin helps keep them stable while gliding. However, these animals also have some key differences:
Sugar gliders live in Australia, and flying squirrels live in North America. Sugar gliders have a pouch (like a kangaroo does), which provides shelter and safety for their tiny babies — at birth, a baby sugar glider is smaller than a peanut! Flying squirrels, on the other hand, have much larger babies and no pouch.
By studying their genes and other traits, biologists have figured out that sugar gliders and flying squirrels are probably not very closely related. Sugar gliders are marsupial mammals and flying squirrels are placental mammals.
The similarities between these organisms is a result of convergent evolution.

29. How are Linnaean and evolutionary classification different?
Linnaeus grouped species into larger taxa, mainly according to visible similarities and differences.
This approach can cause problems.
The goal of evolutionary biology is to group species into larger categories that reflect lines of evolutionary descent, rather than overall similarities and differences.
Inspired by Darwin’s ideas about descent with modification

30. What is cladistic analysis?
Modern evolutionary classification uses a method called cladistic analysis.
Cladistic analysis identifies and considers only those characteristics of organisms that are evolutionary innovations.
Traits that appear in recent parts of a lineage but not in its older members are called derived characters.
Derived characters can be used to construct a cladogram, a diagram that shows the evolutionary relationships among a group of organisms.
To the Teacher:
This cladogram shows a simplified phylogeny of the cat family. The lowest node represents the last common ancestor of all four-limbed animals—members of the clade Tetrapoda. The forks show the order in which various groups branched off over the course of evolution. Each derived character defines a clade. Hair, for example, is a defining character for the clade Mammalia. Derived characters that appear “lower” on the cladogram than the branch point for a clade are not derived for that particular clade. Hair, for example, is not a derived character for the clade Carnivora.
The positions of the derived characters on the cladogram reflect the order in which those characteristics arose in this lineage. Because distantly related groups of organisms can lose the same character, systematists are cautious about using the absence of a trait as a derived character.
For example, both whales and snakes have lost the tetrapod character of four limbs—but they are not very closely related. Snakes are members of the clade Reptilia, while whales are members of the clade Mammalia.

31. How can I read a cladogram?
A speciation event, in which an ancestral lineage branches into two new lineages, is the basis for each branch point, or node. Each node represents the last point at which the new lineages shared a common ancestor.
The bottom, or “root,” of the tree represents the common ancestor shared by all organisms on the cladogram.

32. How can I read a cladogram?
A cladogram’s branching patterns indicate degrees of relatedness among organisms.
Because lineages 3 and 4 share a common ancestor more recently with each other than they do with lineage 2, you know that lineages 3 and 4 are more closely related to each other than they are with lineage 2.
Likewise, lineages 2, 3, and 4 are more closely related, in terms on ancestry, with each other than any of them is to lineage 1.
To The Teacher:
A clade must be monophyletic. This means that it contains an ancestral species and all of its descendants, and no species that are not descendants of that ancestor. Cladistic analysis shows that many traditional taxonomic groups do form valid clades. Linnaean class Mammalia, for example, corresponds to clade Mammalia.

33. Collaborative Activity: Construct a Cladogram
Purpose: In this activity, you will fill in a cladogram for methods of transportation. Problem Statement: How can methods of transportation be organized using a cladogram?
To the Teacher:
This collaborative activity should be last between minutes. Its purpose is to learn how cladograms are constructed using shared characteristics. I’ve only taught cladograms in a ‘traditional’ sense before but finding and implementing this Quick Lab was more meaningful and students related to it.
Data Sample
Analyze and Conclude
wheels, motor, passengers enclosed, wings
walking
It is not practical to board an airplane just to fly a few miles, so biking is better.

34. Collaborative Activity: Construct a Cladogram
Purpose: In this activity, you will construct a cladogram to classify a group of animals. (Pag. 520)
To the Teacher:
This collaborative activity should be last between minutes. Its purpose is to learn how cladograms are constructed using shared characteristics. I’ve only taught cladograms in a ‘traditional’ sense before but finding and implementing this Quick Lab was more meaningful and students related to it.
Data Sample
Analyze and Conclude
wheels, motor, passengers enclosed, wings
walking
It is not practical to board an airplane just to fly a few miles, so biking is better.
Hair
Legs
Backbone

35. Collaborative Activity: Interpreting a Cladogram
This cladogram shows the evolutionary history of cats.
What are the derived characters in this cladogram?
Is hair a derived character of mammals?
Is amniotic egg a derived character of mammals?
For which clade is retractable claws a derived character?
Why is four limbs a derived character for clade tetrapoda, but a primitive character for all the other clades?
To The Teacher:
Four limbs, amniotic egg, hair, specialized shearing teeth, and retractable claws.
Yes, only mammals have hairs.
No, reptiles have also amniotic eggs. This derived character is primitive to mammals.
Clade Felidae or cats
Four limbs is a derived character for clade Tetrapoda because only tetrapods have four limbs. It is a primitive character for clades Amniota, Mammalia, Carnivora, and Felidae, because it isn’t true that only reptiles, or that only marsupials, or only dogs or cats, have four limbs.

36. How are DNA sequences used in classification?
Similarities in DNA can be used to help determine classification and evolutionary relationships.
The more similar the DNA sequences of two species, the more recently they share a common ancestor, and the more closely they are related in evolutionary terms.
The more two species have diverged from one another, or changed in comparison to one another during evolution, the less similar their DNA will be.
Because DNA and RNA are so similar across all forms of life, these molecules provide and excellent way of comparing organisms at their most basic level, their genes.

37. How are DNA sequences used in classification?
According to the figure, which species is most closely related to red pandas?
Biologists had previously classified giant pandas together with raccoons and red pandas. What did DNA analysis reveal about giant pandas and bears?
DNA evidence suggests that that the giant panda shares a common ancestor with bears than with either red pandas or raccoons.

38. What is the essential question?
The Linnaean classification system is based solely on physical characteristics. How has the classification of organisms changed since Linnaeus developed his taxonomy system?
In your answer:
explain how cladistics differs from Linnaean taxonomy. (5 pts.)
explain how new technologies in molecular biology and DNA research have affected the Linnaean classification system. (5 pts.)