1. State Space 4 Chapter 4 Adversarial Games

2. Two Flavors Games of Perfect Information ◦Each player knows everything that can be known ◦Chess, Othello Games of Imperfect Information ◦Player’s have partial knowledge ◦Poker: dispute is settled by revealing the contents of one’s hand

3. Two Approaches to Perfect Information Games Use simple heuristics and search many nodes Use sophisticated heuristics and search few nodes Cost of calculating the heuristics might outweigh the cost of opening many nodes The closer h is to h*, the better informed it is. But information can be expensive

4. A Model: MiniMax on exhaustively searchable graphs Two Players min: tries to achieve an outcome of 0 max: tries to achieve an outcome of 1

5. You are max at node A B A H F CD K G O E J N PQ R I LM MAX Max Min Max 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0

6. Wins Max would like to go to F,J,N,Q,L Min would like to go to D,H,P,R,M Propagating Scores: A first pass Min’s Turn a Node I ◦Go to M to win ◦So assign I a 0 Max’s turn at node O ◦Go to Q to win ◦So assign 1 to node O

7. Conclusion 1. If faced with two labeled choices, you would choose 0 (if min) or 1 (if max) 2. Assume you’re opponent will play the same way

8. Propagating Scores For each unlabeled node in the tree If it’s max’s turn, give it the max score of its children If it’s min’s turn, give it the min score of its children Now label the tree Conclusion: Max must choose C at the first move or lose the game

9. Nim 7 coins 2 players Players divide coins into two piles at each move, such that ◦Piles have an unequal number of coins ◦No pile is empty Play ends when a player can no longer move

10. Start of Game 7 6,1 5,2 4,3 min Complete the game to see that min wins only if max makes a mistake at 6,1 or 5,2 5,1,1 4,2,1

11. αβ Pruning Problem For games of any complexity, you can’t search the whole tree Solution Look ahead a fixed number of plys (levels) Evaluate according to some heuristic estimate Develop a criterion for pruning subtrees that don’t require examination

12. Recast Instead of representing wins, numbers represent the relative goodness of nodes. At any junction Max chooses highest Min chooses lowest Higher means better for max Lower means better for min

13. What should Max do? j mz g k n t pq r 8 812 739 9 4 4 8 Min alpha beta Max

14. Situation Max’s turn at node g Left subtree of g has been explored If max chooses j, min will choose m So the best max can do by going left is 8. Call this α Now Examine K and its left subtree n with a value of 4 If max chooses k, the worst min can do is 4. Why? T may be < 4. If it is min will choose it. If not, min will choose 4 So the worst min can do, if max goes right is 4. Call this β

15. Question Must max expand the rst(K)? No. min is guaranteed 4. But if max chose j, min is guaranteed 8 So max is better off by going left More formally: Val(k) = min(4, val(t)) <= 4 Val(g) = max(8,val(k)) = max(8, min(4,val(t)) = 8

16. Max Principle If you’re Max: Search can be stopped below any min node where β <= α of its max ancestor

17. What should Min do? n de k t pqr 4 43 7 3 9 9 4 Min alpha Beta

18. Situation Min’s turn at node k Left subtree of k has been explored If min chooses n, max will choose d So the best min can do by going left is 4. Call this β Now examine T and its left subtree P with a value of 7 If min chooses T, the worst max can do is 7. Why? Q or R may be > 7. If either is Max will choose one of them. If not, max will choose 7. So the worst max can do, if min goes right is 7. Call this α

19. Question Should min explore Q and R No Max is guaranteed 7 if Min chooses T But if min chooses N, max gets only 4 Val(T) = max(7,val(Q), val(R)) >= 7 Val(k) = min(4,val(T)) = 4

20. Min Principle If you’re min: Search can be stopped below any max node where α >= β of its min ancestor

21. To Summarize Max’s turn ◦β is min’s guaranteed score (the worst min can do) ◦α is best max can do Max principle ◦Search can be stopped below any min node where β <= α of its max ancestor Min’s turn ◦α is max’s guaranteed score (the worst max can do) ◦β is best min can do Min principle ◦Search can be stopped below any max node where α >= β of its min ancestor

22. Examples 3 - 6 On White Board

24. AB Prune (Nilsson, p. 205) Similarity between 2 and 2’ Arguments for min/min principles (Slides 15, 19)

25. Best Case Performance Call ◦D the depth of the search space ◦N D the number of terminal nodes ◦B the branching factor Best case AB performance: N D = 2B D/2 – 1 for even D N D = 2B (D+1)/2 + B (D-1)/2 for odd D

26. Example Suppose B = 5, D = 6 w/out alpha/beta N D = 5 6 = 15625 w/alpha/beta N D = 2* 5 3 - 1 = 249 Approx. 1.6% of terminal nodes without AB prune

27. Average Performance AB prune reduces branching factor B to B 3/4 Suppose B = 5, B ab = 3.34 Suppose D = 6 Then N D = 5 6 = 15625 N DAB = 3.34 6 = 1388 ≈ 8.8% without AB prune

28. Binary Trees Clear relationship between branching factor and the size of the search space Let T = number of nodes in a full binary tree T = 2 0 + 2 1 + 2 2 + … + 2 D-1 = 2 D – 1 Easily proved through induction

29. Extend to arbitrary B T = B 0 +B 1 + B 2 + … + B D = B(B D - 1)/(B-1) + 1 Also provable through induction

30. To Sum Up 1. D is the depth of the search space 2. B is the average number of descendants at each level 3. Size of search space = B(B D -1)/(B-1) + 1 4. Grows very fast ◦As branching factor increases ◦As depth increases 5. Combinatorial Explosion: search space grows too fast to be exhaustively searched 6. But we want to search deeply (large D) 7. Conclusion: reduce B through AB pruning