1. Constraining the time when language evolved Sverker Johansson School of Education & Communication University of Jönköping, Sweden

2. Precise time of language emergence cannot be determined Upper and lower limits can be set Time limits add constraints to theorizing about language origins

3. Upper limits Trivial limit: The other apes do not have language  Most parsimonious conclusion: Our common ancestor did not have language.  Upper age limit: At the time of the common ancestor.  Common ancestor most likely lived 5-8 million years ago  Upper age limit in the vicinity of 5 million years

4. Upper limits II Non-trivial limits possible? Minimum brain size needed for language? –Possibly – but given what chimps can be taught, the limit cannot be much beyond chimp capacity. No way to determine a firm limit absent living australopiths. “Hobbits”? Language associated with symbolic culture? –Does absence of culture imply absence of language? Possibly... –Does absence of durable material artefacts imply absence of language? Hardly! Speech anatomy needed for language? –Not if sign language came first. Non-trivial upper limit not possible!

5. Lower limits Trivial limit – or is it? All modern humans have language  Most parsimonious conclusion: Our last common ancestor had language.  Lower age limit: At the time of the common ancestor.  Common ancestor most likely lived 100,000-200,000 years ago Genetic data – “mitochondrial Eve”, “Y-Adam” etc. Archeological data indicating when we left Africa and arrived elsewhere  Lower age limit in the vicinity of 100,000 years Not trivial – theories placing language origins at less than 100,000 years are far from rare.

6. Lower limits II Language fossils? Language as such not visible in fossils, but:  Anatomical language adaptations might be.  Traces of other symbolic behavior might be. Two kinds of limits possible:  Directly from the age of such finds.  Indirectly – if anatomy or symbols found in different branches of the family tree, the limit is pushed back to their common ancestor.

7. Lower limits III -- Anatomy Speech organs Hearing organs Brain Neural connections

8. Anatomy I – Speech organs Speech organs:  Human vocal tract likely speech adaptation ( but see also presentation by Fitch here )  Vocal tract shape affects skull base and hyoid bone.  Skull base near-modern shape in Homo erectus but affected by brain and face reshaping as well – not reliable as speech indicator.  Hyoid bone more useful, but rare as fossil. Neanderthal hyoid near-modern shape. Neanderthal hyoid

9. Anatomy II – Hearing organs  Human ears tuned for 3-5 kHz sensitivity compared with chimps. Adaptation for speech perception? ( but see also Zuidema & O’Donnell here )  Human-shaped middle ear in 400,000-year old fossils (Sima de los Huesos, Spain). Likely Neanderthal ancestors.  Genetic traces of strong natural selection in middle-ear structural genes. Human (blue) Chimp (green) H heidelbergensis (red, purple) Martínez et al (2004) PNAS 101(27)9976

10. Anatomy III – Brain  Gross anatomy of brain visible in fossils.  The age of e.g. Broca’s area might be determined.  Ditto lateralization. BUT  Structures similar in gross anatomy to Broca, Wernicke etc. found in other apes.  Ditto lateralization. No useful age limit from gross brain structure.

11. Anatomy IV – Nerves  Neural canals in bone may indicate thickness of nerve.  Thicker nerve  improved sensitivity and control.  Improved control of vocal organs may be speech adaptation. Possible candidates:  Hypoglossal canal (to the tongue):  Contradictory interpretations of fossil evidence – no firm conclusion possible.  Nerves to the thorax (breathing control?)  Wide canals in us and Neanderthals, narrow in apes and in Homo ergaster.

12. Anatomy conclusions  Several hints of speech adaptations found in Neanderthal lineage.  No individual anatomical indication is strongly compelling, but their joint weight is substantial.  This implies the last common ancestor of us and Neanderthals likely had some form of speech.

13. Lower limits III -- Symbolics Art and ornaments imply symbolic capacity? Advanced creative tool making? Cognitive “Big Bang” 40,000 years ago?

14. Symbols I – Big Bang? Homo sapiens turns up suddenly in Europe 40,000 years ago, with advanced tools and art. BUT Europe is not the whole world. We have a long history in Africa, gradually developing the advanced package ( McBrearty & Brooks 2000 ).

15. Symbols II – Pre-40k culture Beads (ostrich eggs), 52,000 BP McBrearty & Brooks (2000) Used pigment chunk, >200,000 years BP Barham (2002) Curr Anthro 44:627 Engraved ochre, 77,000 years BP Yellen et al (1995) Science 268:553 d’Errico et al Barbed bone tools, Katanda, 90,000 years BP

16. Symbols III – Pre-sapiens art? No uncontested objects of art from other species of Homo. Possible art goes back to Acheulean period. Fair amount of evidence of simple symbolic behavior among Neanderthals (art, pigment use, burials), though it remains contested. Yellen et al (1995) Science 268:553 Bednarik (2003) Curr Anthro 44:405 Figurine – or just funny rock? Neanderthal ornaments? 33,000 BP d’Errico et al (2003) JWP 17:1

17. Symbol conclusions No 40,000 BP revolution. Gradual emergence of clearer and clearer indications of symbolic behavior across several hundred thousand years. Likely symbolic capacity among Neanderthals. Possible symbolic capacity among earlier people. Conclusions: Symbolic capacity much older than 40,000 years Fair support for symbolic capacity in Neanderthals, and thus in our common ancestor. Good match with the anatomical evidence. Yellen et al (1995) Science 268:553

18. Lower limits -- conclusion Firm limit from common ancestor of all living people, and from clear symbolic behavior: 100,000 years Fair degree of support for both speech and symbol capacity in Neanderthals. Common ancestor of us and Neanderthals lived >500,000 years ago. Most likely age of some form of speech: > 500,000 years Homo Heidelbergensis? Homo erectus?

19. A few key references Arensburg et al (1990). A reappraisal of the anatomical basis for speech in Middle Paleolithic hominids. Am J Phys Anthro 83:137-146 d’Errico et al (2003). Archaeological evidence for the emergence of language, symbolism, and music —an alternative multidisciplinary perspective. J World Prehistory 17:1-70 Krings et al (1999). DNA sequence of the mitochondrial hypervariable region II from the Neanderthal type specimen. Proc Nat Acad Sci 96:5581- 5585 MacLarnon, A. M. & Hewitt, G. P. (1999). The evolution of human speech: the role of enhanced breathing control. Am J Phys Anthro 109:341-363 Martínez et al (2004). Auditory capacities in Middle Pleistocene humans from the Sierra de Atapuerca in Spain. Proc Nat Acad Sci 101:9976-9981 McBrearty, S. & Brooks, A. (2000). The revolution that wasn’t: a new interpretation of the origin of modern human behavior. J Hum Evo 39:453- 563