1. Chapter 14
Coral Reefs

2. Corals
Corals are _____, a phylum of animals characterized by the presence of _____ on their tentacles
These _____ are used to capture prey primarily, but can also be defensive
The soft _____ is enclosed in a hard shell of calcium carbonate created by the coral.

3. Basic Types of Corals Hermatypic corals-
Reef builders-mainly scleractinian corals
Normally contain zooxanthellae, symbiotic photosynthetic dinoflagellates
Restricted in distribution by water temperature and water quality
Ahermatypic corals-mainly gorgonians (sea fans and sea whips)
Do not build reefs
May not contain zooxanthellae
Not as restricted by water temperature and water quality

4. Anatomy of a Coral Reef
Coral reef polyps are interconnected by thin layers of tissue
They share a nervous system and digestive connection – this is due to the fact that the entire colony came from one original polyp that reproduced asexually by _____to produce the colony

5. Anatomy of a Coral Reef
Each polyp continues to lay down new CaCO3 beneath the polyp body so the entire coral colony continues to grow upward
Each polyp is normally 1 to 3 mm in width
However, the collection of polyps together can collectively grow to extremely large sizes and weigh several tons

6. Coral Nutrition
The zooxanthellae housed inside the coral produce _____ through photosynthesis
Some of this _____ is passed to the coral
This mutualism aids the coral and helps the entire reef grow faster
In fact, if zooxanthellae are supplied with enough light, they can feed the coral completely

7. Coral Nutrition
Of course, coral also possess ____ that contain nematocysts to sting potential prey that come within reach of the tentacles
These cells allow the coral to feed on small organisms in the water, mostly zooplankton
Some corals also produce sheets of mucous to capture zooxanthellae or detritus

8. Coral Nutrition
Coral can also feed using extensions of the gut wall called mesenterial filaments
These filaments secrete digestive enzymes
The coral can extend the filaments with its enzymes allowing the coral to feed and digest food outside the body

9. Conditions Required for Reef Growth
Hard substrate
Optimal light
Narrow temperature range
Narrow _____ range = stenohaline
Low sediment load in water
Low pollution
Narrow range of pH

10. Reproduction and Growth of New Coral
Corals reproduce both sexually and asexually
Asexual reproduction allows for the growth of buds from a single polyp
Sexual reproduction results in the creation of a planula larvae that is able to ride on the water currents to a new environment
These larvae will settle out of the currents to begin growth on existing reefs or other hard substrate

11. Light Requirements
Light must be able to penetrate the water to the depth of a coral to allow the symbiotic zooxanthellae to photosynthesize
Due to this, corals are normally found in shallow waters
Some may be found to depths over 150 feet if water clarity permits light penetration to that depth
Corals are mostly found on continental shelves, near islands or on seamounts due to this light/depth dependency

12. Temperature Requirements
Hermatypic (_____ building) corals tolerate a narrow temperature range compared with most marine organisms
Corals can only reproduce and grow if water temperatures are over 68 degrees F
Higher water temperatures are preferred for optimal growth
However, water temperatures above 86 degrees (or higher in some species) causes coral stress
Coral stress can lead to “bleaching,” an expulsion of zooxanthellae from the coral polyp

13. Coral Stress and Bleaching
The expulsion of zooxanthellae is termed bleaching because the normally colored coral is bleach white after this expulsion
The zooxanthellae give the corals their distinctive color

14. Coral Stress and Bleaching
Other events besides high temperatures can cause coral bleaching
Poor water quality, increased sediment in water column, wave stress or disease can also cause bleaching
If corals remain bleached for too long, it can result in death of the coral
Widespread bleaching often occurs as a result of extreme weather events such as hurricanes

15. Salinity Requirements
Normal sea salinity is around ___ parts per thousand
Corals maintain good health in an environment around 35 ppt
Corals normally do not exist near areas where rivers deliver large amounts of freshwater to the marine environment because of this salinity requirement
Low salinity can result in coral bleaching as well

16. Sediments and Wave Action
Corals do not normally grow in areas where wave action is high
This is due to the fact that heavy wave action results in the suspension of sediments in the water column
Suspended sediments can settle on corals causing damage as well as reduce water clarity
Reduced water clarity means that zooxanthellae photosynthesis will be reduced or stopped

17. Coral Sensitivity to Pollution
Even low levels of pollution can kill coral polyps
High nutrient levels (eutrophication) can also allow algae levels to rise
Increased algal growth can shade light-sensitive corals and their zooxanthellae

18. Types of Coral Growth Forms
Coral colonies can come in a variety of shapes and sizes
Taller, more branching tend to be more common in shallower areas of the reef due to intense competition for space and light
Flatter forms tend to be more common in deeper areas of the reef; this probably assists with capturing all possible light available.

19. Types of Coral Growth Forms

20. Branched and massive respectively. (Photographs by Dr. Donald Keith)

21. Foliaceous. Photograph by Dr. Donald Keith
Brain, lettuce leaf, and staghorn would be a few of the corals seen in the Flower Gardens Coral Reef off the Galveston, Texas Coast

23. Other Organisms that Contribute to Reef Structure Besides Stony Corals
Coralline algae (also produce calcium carbonate)
Soft corals such as sea whips and sea fans (gorgonians) (produce a soft protein)
Other cnidarians such as hydrozoans or anemones
Sponges

25. Types of Coral Reefs
Fringing Reefs
Barrier reefs
Atolls

26. Fringing Reefs Simplest and most common form of reefs
These reefs develop near the shore in tropical waters
These reefs develop as narrow strips along the shore
The fringing reef shown in the next photograph encircles the island it has formed near

27. Fringing Reefs
Fringing reefs consist of an inner reef flat and an outer reef slope
The reef flat is wide, gently sloping and may be exposed in places at low tide
The reef slope is much more steep and is not exposed to air
The reef crest is the shallow, upper edge of the reef slope
Growth is normally high in this area

28. Barrier Reefs Occur along shore also but separated by a lagoon.
Typical construction of a barrier reef: a back-reef slope, a reef flat and crest and a fore-reef slope
The fore-reef slope is steeper and upper parts and crest are most diverse
The depth of the water drops quickly in this area!
The slope of the back-reef slope may also be steep, but not to the degree of the fore-reef slope

29. Barrier Reefs
Waves often wash sediment onto the back reef slope or reef flat which causes reduced coral growth in this area
Enough sediment may accrue to form small islands on the reef
These islands are called keys in the US or cayes elsewhere. Florida has many keys.

30. A rich back-reef slope of a Pacific barrier reef not covered by sand

31. Great Barrier Reef, Australia
The Great Barrier Reef is considered the largest reef structure in the world with regards to total coral area
The length of the reef systems exceeds 1200 miles
The width varies from 10 – 200 miles
Many cayes exist along the reef system

32. Atolls
An atoll is a circular reef structure surrounding a central lagoon
Sand cayes may be a part of the atoll structure
Width varies from less than one mile to over 20 miles

33. Atoll Formation Atolls form when a volcanic island is formed
The coral begins as a fringing reef around the newly formed island
Over time, weathering and geologic activity lowers the level of the island
Eventually, the island disappears below the water’s surface, leaving only the outer band of coral surrounding a lagoon

34. Atolls Atolls possess a reef flat and inner and outer reef slopes
The inner slope has a more gradual slope than the outer slope and the lagoon normally has a depth of 200 feet or less
The two largest atolls are in the Maldives (Indian Ocean) and the Marshall Islands (Pacific)

35. Coral Reef Ecology
Like any marine environment, the coral reef community is structured due to limiting resources, competition, and predation
The water column surrounding the reef is normally very low in nutrients
This is due to the position of reefs away from rivers and other sources of nutrients (remember corals form best away from possible sedimentation sources)

36. Coral Reef Ecology
Due to this low nutrient content, the water surrounding the reef does not support the degree of primary production by phytoplankton seen in other marine communities
The food chain here is based around the primary production of zooxanthellae located in the body of the corals and other organisms
The coral benefits the zooxanthellae by providing carbon dioxide, nitrogen and phosphorus (by-products), and shelter
The zooxanthellae provide sugars to the corals (and any organism that feeds on the corals or their parts

37. Coral Reef Ecology
Cyanobacteria present on the reef are able to fix nitrogen which is then available to other reef inhabitants who feed on the cyanobacteria
Seagrasses and algae can also feed reef inhabitants
Water currents may bring some phyto- and zooplankton to the reef community

38. Typical Coral Reef Food Web

39. Many Organisms Feed Directly on Corals or their mucus, eggs, & larvae

40. Deterring Predation
Many coral reef inhabitants can deter predation by producing toxic or foul tasting chemicals – this is common in soft corals and sponges
These chemicals can be released into the water to kill organisms or limit growth surrounding these organisms
Other reef dwellers may produce hard structures to deter predation – sponges produce spicules of calcium carbonate or silica while soft corals produce calcium carbonate needles known as sclerites
Coralline algaes as well as other organisms grow in an encrusting form that is difficult to feed upon because of its thinness and hardness

41. Competition on the Reef
There is high competition for space and light on the reef
To limit competition, some corals grow fast and upright to maximize their ability to reproduce quickly
Others grow slow but massive to out-compete other organisms in the long run
Corals may feed directly or sting one another if they contact each other
Shown at right is interspecific coral competition (and some coral death in the pink area)

42. Competition on the Reef
Other organisms such as fish and crustaceans must also compete for limited resources
They normally do this by feeding in slightly different areas or in slightly different ways
Each has its own ecological niche