2. INNOVATOR DEFINITION “FIRM OR INDIVIDUAL THAT FIRST DEVELOPED A SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENT INNOVATION TO A STATE PROVED FUNCTIONALLY USEFUL, AS INDICATED BY THE PUBLICATION OF DATA GENERATED BY IT IN SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL” USERS AS INNOVATORS

3. INNOVATION SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS USERS AS INNOVATORS PURPOSE: TO DEMONSTRATE THAT INNOVATERS ARE MOST OFTEN USERS INSTRUMENT TYPES: GAS CHROMATOGRAF NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE SPECTROMETER ULTRAVIOLET ABSORTION SPECTROPHOTOMETER TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPE

4. USERS AS INNOVATORS ACCORDING TO THE PRESENT DATA, USERS WERE THE DEVELOPERS OF FULLY 77% OF ALL INNOVATIONS STUDIED. INNOVATION SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS

5. USERS AS INNOVATORS STEPS IN A DEVELOPMENT AND DIFFUSION OF A SCIENTIC INNOVATION USER- DOMINATED STEPSMANUFACTURER ROLE 2134 Significant instrument improvement invented, built, and used by user User diffuses results and how- to-do-it information through publication, symposia, visits, etc A few users (or a few dozen) built their own instrument Instrument company introduces commercial version INVENTION PROTOTYPING INFORMATION DIFFUSION PRECOMMERCIAL REPLICATION AND USE COMMERCIAL MANUFACTURING AND SALE INNOVATION SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS

6. INNOVATION SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS USERS AS INNOVATORS TYPICALLY THE INNOVATIVE USER PERCEIVED THAT AN ADVANCE IN INSTRUMENTATION WAS REQUIRED INVENTED THE INSTRUMENT BUILT A PROTOTYPE PROVED THE PROTOTYPE’S VALUE BY APPLYING IT DIFFUSED DETAILED INFORMATION ON BOTH THE VALUE OF THE INNOVATION AND ON HOW THE PROTOTYPE DEVICE COULD BE REPLICATED MANUFACTURER PERFORMED PRODUCT ENGINEERING WORK ON THE USER’S DEVICE TO IMPROVE ITS RELIABILITY AND CONVENIENCE OF OPERATION MANUFACTURED, MARKETED AND SOLD THE INNOVATIVE PRODUCT

7. INNOVATION OTHER FIELDS USERS AS INNOVATORS IT WILL BE POSSIBLE SAY THAT USERS ARE DEVELOPERS IN OTHERS FIELDS BEYOND SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS? A SECOND STUDY WAS CONDUCTED EXAMINING INNOVATIONS AFFECTING TWO TYPES OF PROCESSES: MANUFACTURE OF SILICON-BASED SEMICONDUCTORS ASSEMBLY OF PRINTED CIRCUITS (PC) BOARDS (MANUFACTURING BY MEANS OF SERIES PROCESS STEP)

8. INNOVATION OTHER FIELDS USERS AS INNOVATORS METHOD: studied of the successive innovations that first established and then improved several such manufacturing process steps. THE SOURCES OF INNOVATION: Users developed all of the process machinery innovations involved. CONCLUSION: User innovation is not a phenomenon restricted to scientific instruments only. Users were found to be developers of all multistep process concepts examined.

9. INNOVATION OTHER FIELDS USERS AS INNOVATORS Septs Observed in the User Development of an Innovation: UserManufacturer Primary Actor Innovation Process Stage Identify Need Research/ Development Built Prototype Apply/Commercialize Diffuse Innovation TIME Users of process equipment innovations do not necessarily have an incentive to transfer what they know to an equipment manufacturer.

10. INNOVATION OTHER FIELDS USERS AS INNOVATORS THE FOCUS OF ALMOST THE ENTIRE INNOVATION PROCESS IS CENTERED ON THE USER MOST OF ALL OF THE INNOVATION PROCESS CULMINATING IN A NEW INDUSTRIAL GOOD OCCURS WITHIN THE COMMERCIALIZING FIRM

11. INNOVATION VARIATIONS IN THE FUNTIONAL SOURCE USERS AS INNOVATORS Users sometimes innovate. BUT DO THEY ALWAYS? Examples: PULTRUSION: Users as Innovators THE TRACTOR SHOVEL: Manufacturers as Innovators ENGINEERING THERMOPLASTICS: Manufacturers as Innovators PLASTICS ADDITIVES: Manufacturers as Innovators WIRE TERMINATION EQUIPMENT: Supplier/Manufacturers as Innovators PROCESS EQUIPMENT UTILIZING INDUSTRIAL GASES AND THERMOPLASTICS: Suppliers as Innovators