2. The Basics of Sexual Reproduction
Variation or differences in characteristics among class members is not surprising because we all come from different families.
certain characteristics can be found amongst members of the same family
certain characteristics are different amongst members of same family
Fraternal twins - sexual reproduction
Identical Twins - asexual reproduction
Gametes - Body has specialized organs (testes/ovaries) that produce gametes (sex cells) used for reproduction

3. Sexual Reproduction – gametes(1 n) from 2 parents combine during fertilization to form a zygote (2n)

4. Boy or Girl? The Y Chromosome “Decides”

5. Sexual Reproduction – gametes(1 n) from 2 parents combine during fertilization to form a zygote (2n)
Homologous Chromosome pairs - “matching” pairs of chromosomes
receive one member of each pair from mother and another from father
Human body – 46 chromosomes arranged in 23 pairs that resemble each other in shape and size
Body cells = diploid (2n) - 2(23) = 46
Gametes = haploid (1n) - 1(23) = 23
In order for human chromosome # to remain 46, gametes must have half of the chromosomes.

6. Boy or Girl? The Y Chromosome “Decides”
X chromosome
Y chromosome

8. Fertilization – only haploid gametes can combine to form a diploid zygote
if both were diploid = 92 chromosomes
Mitosis – ensures that chromosome number does not change
Meiosis – process to ensure that each gamete contains only one set of chromosomes
Also ensures that each gamete has different combination of chromosomes than were present before meiosis
Because of non- identical nuclei, offspring are produced that are different from parents
Crossing Over – exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes
– only in Prophase I and Metaphase I

12. Formation of Sperm and Egg - sexually reproducing animals produce gametes in organs called gonads
Male gonads (Testes) – produce male gametes called sperm
Female gonads (Ovaries) – produce female gametes called eggs
Fertilization – gametes come together to form a zygote
Development – zygote starts to divide by mitosis and differentiate into all cells and tissues of the new organism.

15. Sexual Reproduction in Animals
Despite the variety amongst animal species, they still reproduce sexually in relatively the same ways
meiosis produces gametes
male gamete (sperm) combines with female gamete (egg) = FERTILIZATION
a zygote is produced and develops into an embryo
embryo develops by mitosis into an new organism (offspring)
For success 3 things must happen:
Fertilization occurs if both male and female gametes arrive in same place at same time.
Fertilization occurs only if sperm meets an egg from the same species.
Zygote must receive adequate food, moisture, warmth, and protection to develop.

16. Mating Patterns in Animal Kingdom
2 members of a population come together to combine gametes for fertilization
some only have one mating season/year (usually offspring will hatch or be born in favourable conditions)
ie. fish called grunion mate when tide is high, honeybees mate once in lifetime
Patterns of Fertilization:
moist environment is required so gametes don’t die
egg’s cell membrane needs to stay supple and sperm need water to swim
1. External - sperm and egg meet outside the organism’s bodies - (mostly aquatic)
2. Internal - sperm travels from male’s body into female’s body to meet the egg
– development of embryo can be internal or external

17. 1. External Fertilization - mostly water-dwelling animals
a) Coral & Sea anemone - adult anemones cannot move around to mate with each other
- release eggs and sperm directly in water (spawning)
- rely on currents to bring gametes together
- zygotes are free-swimming, self-feeding larvae which travel distances before settling down and developing into adults
b)Fish - female lays cluster of eggs, male releases sperm directly over eggs (spawning)
c) Frogs - male frog embraces female who lays her eggs while male releases sperm over them (mating)
New generation - young hatch from eggs of anemones, fish, frogs that do not look like the adult forms
undergo many developmental changes to become adult forms (some remain in water, others move to land)

18. 2. Internal Fertilization - Mostly land animals therefore
2. Internal Fertilization - Mostly land animals therefore they need specialized structures on male to transfer sperm inside female
a)Reptiles - males transfer sperm into female’s cloaca (chamber where female reproductive, urinary and digestive ducts leave body)
most reptiles lay eggs with tough, leathery shells with a fluid-filled sac surrounding the embryo
b)Birds - few have specialized structures for transferring sperm, both males and females have cloaca
fertilization by close contact where the sperm swim from male cloaca to female cloaca
eggs laid with hard outer coverings – parent(s) incubate & protect
most species of birds – parents invest a great deal of energy in feeding young

19. Differences In Development:
Hermaphrodites- Animals that have both female and male reproductive organs
ie. Earthworms – during mating, each worm injects sperm into a reproductive pore on other worm’s body
- each organism lay fertilized eggs
Metamorphosis - some animals are born as miniature adults while others pass through different stages of development:
Incomplete metamorphosis (grasshoppers, crickets, frogs) larval form has similarities to adult
Complete metamorphosis (houseflies, butterflies) - adult form does not look like earlier stages
Internal Development - some mothers retain and nourish young before birth which ensures protected development
ie. Placental animals

20. Mammals produce milk for nourishment of their young
Marsupials – no placenta however, they do produce milk for their many babies who after birth crawl into the pouch.