1. Chapter 10 Re-expressing the data
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2. If the relationship is nonlinear
We may re-express the data to straighten the bent relationship.
Common ways to re-express data
Logarithms of the response variable or the explanatory variable, or both.
Square root of the response variable.
Reciprocals of the response variable.

3. Straight to the Point (cont.)
The relationship between fuel efficiency (in miles per gallon) and weight (in pounds) for late model cars looks fairly linear at first
Using the linear model, we get the intercept 40.65, slope and R-squared 82%.

4. Straight to the Point (cont.)
The residual plot shows a problem:

5. Straight to the Point (cont.)
We can re-express fuel efficiency as gallons per mile (a reciprocal):
scatter plots: before and after re-expression

6. Straight to the Point (cont.)
Improved the residuals plot.
R-squared = 88% (was 82%)
7,200 lbs Lincoln Navigator (mpg) has predicted 9.8 mpg (reported 11.0) c.f mpg before the re-expression.

7. When do we need to re-express data?
To make skewed distributions more symmetric
Why?
Easier to summarize symmetric distributions
We can use mean and sd
We can use a normal model

8. Assets of 77 large companies
After log transformation

9. When do we need to re-express data?
2. Make the spread of several groups more alike
Why?
Easier to compare groups that share a common spread
Some statistical methods require the assumption that all groups have a common sd

10. Assets by market sectors
After log transformation

11. When do we need to re-expressing data?
3. Make the relationship more linear
Why?
To apply linear regression
4. Make the points in a scatterplot spread out evenly rather than thicken at one end.
Make the dataset easier to model.

12. Assets vs. Sales
After log transformation

13. The Ladder of Powers
There is a family of simple re-expressions that move data toward our goals in a consistent way. We call this collection of re-expressions the Ladder of Powers.
The Ladder of Powers orders the effects that the re-expressions have on data.

14. The Ladder of Powers -1 -1/2 “0” ½ 1 2 Comment Name Power
Ratios of two quantities (e.g., mph) often benefit from a reciprocal.
The reciprocal of the data -1
An uncommon re-expression, but sometimes useful.
Reciprocal square root
-1/2
Measurements that cannot be negative often benefit from a log re-expression.
We’ll use logarithms here
“0”
Counts often benefit from a square root re-expression. For counted data, start here.
Square root of data values
Data with positive and negative values and no bounds are less likely to benefit from re-expression.
Raw data 1
Try with unimodal distributions that are skewed to the left.
Square of data values 2
Comment
Name
Power

15. Straighten the scatterplot
Raw Data
Logarithm
Square Root
-reciprocal
- 1/square root

16. Plan B: Attack of the Logarithms
When none of the data values is zero or negative, logarithms can be a helpful ally in the search for a useful model.
Try taking the logs of both the x- and y-variable.
Then re-express the data using some combination of x or log(x) vs. y or log(y).

17. Plan B: Attack of the Logarithms (cont.)

18. More generally We can transform both x and y model X-axis Y-axis
Y = exp(a+bx) x
Log(y)
Y = a+b log(x)
Log(x) y
Y = a xb

19. Plan B: Attack of the Logarithms (cont.)
Scatterplots : GDP and log(GDP) vs. Year

20. Logarithms: Fishing Line Length and Strength
1/sqrt(length) vs. strength
length vs. strength
log (length) vs. log (strength)
1/length vs. strength

21. Multiple Benefits
We often choose a re-expression for one reason and then discover that it has helped other aspects of the analysis.
For example, a re-expression that makes a histogram more symmetric might also straighten a scatterplot or stabilize variance.

22. Why Not Just a Curve?
If there’s a curve in the scatterplot, why not just fit a curve to the data?
Computationally more difficult
Straight lines are easy to understand and interpret

23. A general principle Occam’s Razor
entia non sunt multiplicanda praeter necessitatem
entities should not be multiplied beyond necessity.
When multiple competing theories are equal in other respects, the principle recommends selecting the theory that introduces the fewest assumptions and postulates the fewest hypothetical entities

24. What Can Go Wrong? Don’t expect your model to be perfect.
Don’t choose a model based on R2 alone:
Example: large R2, but residual plot shows curvature

25. What Can Go Wrong? (cont.)
Beware of multiple modes.
Re-expression cannot pull separate modes together.
Watch out for scatterplots that turn around.
Re-expression can straighten many bent relationships, but not those that go up and down.

26. What Can Go Wrong? (cont.)
Watch out for negative data values.
Can NOT use log or square root transformations
Watch for data far from 1.
Data values that are all very far from 1 may not be much affected by re-expression unless the range is very large. If all the data values are large (e.g., years), consider subtracting a constant to bring them back near 1.
Don’t stray too far from the ladder
Too difficult to interpret

27. What have we learned?
When the conditions for linear regression are not met, a simple re-expression of the data may help.
A re-expression may make the:
Distribution of a variable more symmetric.
Spread across different groups more similar.
Form of a scatterplot straighter.
Scatter around the line in a scatterplot more consistent.

28. What have we learned? (cont.)
Taking logs is often a good and simple starting point.
To search further, the Ladder of Powers or the log-log approach can help us find a good re-expression.
Our models won’t be perfect, but re-expression can lead us to a useful model.