1. Writing Academic Essays Andy McKay In-sessional programme 2012-2013 English Language Centre Week 2: Structuring Arguments

2. ∂ Quickly review the main points from week 1 Think about what we mean by argument Look at different ways of constructing arguments Think about how this relates to essay structure Look at different types of essay structure In this session we will:

3. ∂ What is the relationship between: Topic Research Question Main Argument/ Thesis Main Points 1. Review

4. ∂ Look at the example essays and identify: Topic Research Question Thesis Activity

5. ∂  The research question emerges from the topic  The thesis is a direct response or answer to the research question  The main points in the essay develop and support the main argument  Your main argument and main points emerge from your reading

6. ∂ The question…an essay without a question is just information… What you want to say about the question or your main argument Whether you have enough evidence and support for your main argument. Have you read enough? Keep in mind at all times…

7. ∂ Your Main Argument… Is how you bring critical thinking into your writing Is how you put yourself into an essay Is how you critically interact with the literature You earn it through reading!

8. ∂ Main Arguments Can change and evolve as you read. Don’t get obsessed with arguing a position if the literature is pushing you another way… “ I can’t find anyone who agrees with my argument” Can be subtle and somewhat ambiguous or strong and direct depending on the topic…

9. ∂ Main Arguments… “Do the benefits of the spread of English as a world language outweigh the problems?” English has become the most powerful language in the world and although there are significant global benefits it does provide yet another economic and cultural boon to the already rich, privileged and developed world. As such, the spread of English presents dangers that cannot be overlooked.

10. ∂ After you’ve established your Main Argument… You need to think about how you are going to support what you say You also need to think about how you are going to structure your ideas…

11. ∂ Your essay will be made up of sections How many sections does each example essay have? How does each section relate to the main argument? 2. Structuring your essay

12. ∂ Throughout your essay you need to ask yourself “How does this section relate to the main argument?” “How does this section contribute to the main argument?” If you don’t know don’t include it!

13. ∂  Your sections will contribute to and create the ‘main argument’  Your sections may: Focus on definitions in background Explain a theoretical position Present a point/ argument  Which is usually the most important?

14. ∂ How does each of the sections in the example essays contribute to the main argument? Activity

15. ∂ What do you understand by the term argument? What do you understand by the term ‘balanced argument’ ? 3. So, how do you make an argument?

16. ∂ Your job as a reader and as a writer is not just to think about the evidence and support in favour of your point but also to consider why you reject evidence of support in favour of alternative point of view. In other words you need…

17. ∂

18. ∂ It just means you that if you take a position you need to be aware of alternative views on the topic It is not enough just to list alternative views. You need to critically interact with the ideas. This means you need to comment on and evaluate your arguments. Sounds odd…

19. ∂ You want to argue that: Obama should not have been given the Nobel prize because although he is a potentially transformative figure, he has not yet achieved any real significant gains for world peace. The conflicts in Iraq and Afghanistan rage on and, even worse, Guantanamo Bay remains open. It cannot really be argued that the world is a more peaceful place because of Obama. For example…

20. ∂ The counter argument: However, although Obama has not yet brought about significant changes, he has changed the whole tone of international relations including opening a dialogue with Iran. As he is president of the most powerful nation in the world the value and importance of this cannot be overstated. He has created a situation where real change is within grasp.

21. ∂ The refutation: Nonetheless, although Obama’s contribution to a more constructive international dialogue is undeniable, it is difficult to argue this essentially symbolic contribution is somehow worthy of an Nobel prize. He seems he is being awarded the prize simply for not being George W Bush. Indeed Obama himself seemed to regard the prize as being somewhat premature. Clearly, the prize cannot be justified.

22. ∂ The death penalty should be banned in all countries because too often mistakes are made that cannot be rectified. Euthanasia or ‘mercy killing’ should be allowed as it prevents unnecessary suffering Think 360° around…. (remember you need to end up where you started… )

23. ∂ Argument (or the point you want to be make) Counter argument Refutation Stages of an argument

24. ∂ Counter argument Refutation Argument You can also construct an argument:

25. ∂ Why might you choose a particular argument structure?

26. ∂ Are you ‘taking on’ a commonly held point of view? Are you rejecting a certain theoretical perspective? Where is the evidence ‘heaviest’?

27. ∂  Argument It is clear that….It can clearly be seen that…  Counter argument However, it must be recognised that… problem with this position… on the other hand… It cannot be ignored that…  Refutation Nonetheless.., Despite this…, Although to a certain extent… Useful Language

28. ∂ However… Look back at essays A + B Do they contain arguments, counter-arguments and refutations? Do you think there is 360° thinking? If not, why not?

29. ∂ Possibilities There is no counter-argument to the possibility of effects, only qualifications to the main argument– the effects are uncertain or can be managed for example. This may be because question presupposes there are effects. It may be because within the academic department it is taken as fact that climate change is a reality and that it has effects. It may be that there is no reliable evidence to support a counter-argument that there are no effects to climate change.

30. ∂ Not every point you make in essay will have a counter argument and a refutation but it is important to think about whether you have considered full ‘the 360°’ on an issue and that all your supporting and opposing statements are based on evidence from your reading. So…

31. ∂ Another common type of essay asks you to solve a problem 5. Other types of essay structure

32. ∂ Look at Essay C How is the essay structured? What do each of the sections do? Structure of a Problem-Solution essay…

33. ∂ Section 1 – Introduction Section 2 – Identifies the problem, (that there is in fact a problem) Section 3 – Explores (and rejects) a possible solution Section 4 – Explores (and recommends) a possible solution Section 5 - Conclusion

34. ∂ Think about sections. Do all of your sections relate to your main argument? Can you justify your sections? Have you done ‘the 360°’ on your points? How are you going to construct your points? In Conclusion

35. ∂ Want more advice? Visit our website… https://www.dur.ac.uk/englishlanguage.centre/ “One-to-One Consultation Service” You can discuss any aspect of your academic work and study with an ELC tutor for free.