AP PSYCHOLOGY Review for the AP Exam Chapter 1-4

AP PSYCHOLOGY Review for the AP Exam Chapter 1-4

Success on the AP Psychology Exam
Knowledge Need to know the material of a typical Introduction to Psychology course at the college level. Typical college course meets for 15 weeks, 3 times a week for 45 class hours.

Success on the AP Psychology Exam
Understanding of the AP Psychology Test Knowing the basic elements of the AP Psychology test including: Number of questions in the total test Number of questions from each individual unit Types of questions possible How the questions are arraigned? How is the test scored? Penalty for guessing

Test Taking Strategies
General Tips for Test Taking Multiple Choice Section Free Response Questions

General Tips for Test Taking
Know how the test is graded Multiple Choice 2/3 of overall grade 100 Points Free Response 1/3 of overall grade 50 Points 150 Total Points

AP Psych Test Part 1 Know the structure of the test
Multiple Choice Section questions A-E Column format Questions taken from every unit on a percentage basis

AP Psychology Exam Structure
Methods, Approaches and History 2-4% Research Methods 6-8% Biological Bases of Behavior 8-10% Sensation and Perception 7-9% States of Consciousness 2-4% Learning 7-9% Cognition 8-10% Motivation and Emotion 7-9% Developmental Psychology 7-9% Personality 6-8% Testing and Individual Differences 5-7% Abnormal Psychology 7-9% Treatment of Psychological Disorders 5-7% Social Psychology 7-9%

Know the structure of the test Free Response Section questions No choice Multiple parts

Free Response Question 2009 #1
1. Dimitri and Linda are trying to learn a new routine to compete successfully in a dance competition. Give an example of how each of the following could affect their performance. Definitions without application do not score. • Extrinsic motivation • Punishment • Proactive interference • Endorphins • Vestibular system • Divergent thinking • Introversion

Free Response Question 2009 #2
2. James is in a driver’s education course preparing to take his driving test. The course includes both book work and driving on the road to prepare students for a written test and a road test. (a) Describe how each of the following might influence his ability to drive a car during the road test. Definitions without application do not score. • Cognitive map • Cerebellum • Observational learning • Human factors (b) Describe how each of the following are related to the results of the written test. Definitions without application do not score. • Reticular formation • Predictive validity • Semantic memory

Section I: Multiple Choice [ _____ (1/4 X _____ )] X = __________ Number Correct Number Wrong Multiple-Choice Score (If less than zero, enter zero) Notes: If any questions are thrown out the 1.0 will change to reflect that change. 1999 – two questions 2007 – one question

Section II: Free Response (Assumes two 8 point and 8 point question) ( X _______) + (2.500 X ________ ) = _____ Question Question Free Response (Out of 8) (Out of 10) Score Note: The numbers will change dependent on how many points each question in a given year is worth.

Section III: Composite Score ______________ + ___________ = _______________ Multiple Choice Free Response Composite Score Score Score Section IV: Final Score

Section I: Multiple Choice [ _____ (1/4 X _____ )] X = __________ Number Correct Number Wrong Multiple-Choice Score (If less than zero, enter zero) Notes: If any questions are thrown out the 1.0 will change to reflect that change. 26 67.5 74 6.5

Section III: Composite Score ______________ + ___________ = _______________ Multiple Choice Free Response Composite Score Score Score Section IV: Final Score 67.5

Section II: Free Response (Assumes two 8 point and 8 point question) ( X _______) + (2.500 X ________ ) = _____ Question Question Free Response (Out of 8) (Out of 10) Score Note: The numbers will change dependent on how many points each question in a given year is worth. 15 18.75 33.75 6 6

Section III: Composite Score ______________ + ___________ = _______________ Multiple Choice Free Response Composite Score Score Score 67.5 33.75 101.25 Section IV: Final Score (20o4 exam) AP Grade Composite Score Range

AP PSYCHOLOGY Review for the AP Exam Chapter 1-4

Psychology: The science of behavior (what we do) and mental processes (sensations, perceptions, dreams, thoughts, beliefs, and feelings….) At all levels, psychologists examine how we process information--how we organize, interpret, store, and use it.

SCHOOLS OF PSYCHOLOGY Prologue

The scientific study of: Behavior & Mental processes
The Roots Psychology The scientific study of: Behavior & Mental processes Physiology Bodily functions that cause certain behavior i.e. lack of sleep causes stress and depression Philosophy The way we perceive ourselves and our thoughts and the world around us

Historical Origins of ψ from Philosophy
Rene Descartes Beliefs Rationalism: True knowledge comes through reasoning We gain knowledge from what we experience “Cogito, ergo sum” “I think, therefore I am” Nativism: Heredity provides individuals with inborn knowledge and abilities and we use this to reason Dualism The mind and the body are two separate entities that work together to form experiences Quick history of his life: a Frenchman, brilliant (top of his class), after graduation he gambled a lot and engaged in debauchery. He then joined the army but preferred isolation to hanging out with others – he didn’t trust them. He believed that ‘my truth is better than their truth.’ He left the army, got interested in geometry and wanted to apply the rules of geometry to aspects of life with regards to axioms (those self-evident truths) and theorems (logical connections between two axioms). From his work, developed a doubting perspective – we are to doubt everything. How do I know this is blue? Can I trust my perception? I think, therefore I am. He was left with only a doubting mind.

Historical Origins of ψ from Philosophy
John Locke Beliefs Tabula rasa We are born as a blank slate, everything we know is learned This is in direct contrast to the rationalist Descartes In his work, ‘An Essay Concerning Human Understanding’ he put forth the belief that the mind is receptive and passive. It’s main goals are to sense and perceive the external world. He believed that we develop all knowledge from the observation of things in the external world. Thus, we are born in a state of ‘tabula rasa’, with a brain that is a blank slate and has no prior knowledge. This is in direct contrast to the Rationalists (and Descartes). Locke saw morons and smart people and wondered what made the dumb people. If we have all this innate knowledge and reasoning skills, how are people dumb? Children aren’t born with innate reasoning, it is something they learn.

Wave One: Structuralism vs. Functionalism Kickin it old school
William James 1890 US “Principles of Psychology” Wilhelm Wundt 1879 Germany

Historical Schools STRUCTURALISM: using introspection, the systematic examination by individuals of their own thoughts and feelings about specific sensory experiences. Emphasized the structure of the mind and behavior. Edward Titchener: (Cornell University) emphasized the “what” of mental illness rather than “why” or “how” of thinking. The major opponent to Stucturalism was…… FUNCTIONALISM: gives primary importance to learned habits that enable organisms to adapt to their environment and to function effectively. “What is the function or purpose of any behavioral act?” John Dewey: provided impetus for progressive education. William James: study of consciousness was not limited to elements, contents, and structures. ….the mind haS an ongoing relationship with the environment. He published “Principles of Psychology” 1890

GESTALTISM: The whole is greater than the sum of its’ parts.
Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Köhler, Kurt Koffka, and Kurt Lewin BIOLOGICAL: the causes of behavior in the genes, the brain, the nervous system, and endocrine system ………the role of specific brain systems in aggression by stimulating different regions and then recording any destructive actions that are elicited.

BEHAVIORISM: emphasizes observable behavior rather than inner mental experiences……… emphasizes the role of environment as the cause of behavior. (From our environment, we learn to do certain behaviors and learn not to do others.) Sometimes called learning theory. ……….use of positive reinforcement rather than punishment B. F. Skinner: radical behaviorism acknowledged that evolution provided each species with a repertory of behaviors. John B.Watson: observable behavior was important; stated the chief goal of psychology was the prediction and control of behavior. Ivan Pavlov: classical conditioning.

NEUROPHYSIOLOGY: An approach which emphasizes that all actions, feelings, and thoughts are associated with bodily events such as the firing of nerve cells in the brain or the release of hormones COGNITIVE: refers to mental activity including thinking, remembering, learning and using language. Behavior is only partly determined by preceding environmental events and past behavioral consequences. “People act because they think.” David Ausubel: attempted to explain meaningful verbal learning as a phenomenon of consciousness rather than of behavior…. Created the “advance organizer.” Jean Piaget: identified stages of cognitive development.

PSYCHOANALYSIS: An approach that emphasizes unconscious motives and conflicts. A psychodynamic psychologist will analyze aggression as a reaction to frustrations caused by barriers to pleasure, such as unjust authority. They view aggression as an adult’s displacement of hostility originally felt as a child against his or her parents. Sigmund Freud: developed from his work with mentally disturbed patients; views a person as being pushed and pulled by complex network of inner and outer forces. Developed stages of life to age 12, claiming that an individual would change little after that point. Erik Erikson: expanded on Freud’s stages of life to include 8 stages into later adulthood. Carl Jung: challenged his mentor Freud with the hypothesis that adulthood, not childhood, represents the most significant phase of psychology.

EVOLUTIONARY: Seeks to connect contemporary psychology to a central idea of the life sciences, Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection. Researchers focus on the environmental conditions in which the human brain evolved. Those organisms best suited to their environments will flourish and pass on genes more successfully than those with poorer adaptations. CULTURAL: Study cross-cultural differences in the causes and consequences of behavior. Researchers may compare the prevalence of eating disorders for white Americans vs. African American teenagers within the U.S. Cultural psychologists study the perceptions of the world as affected by culture, the languages one speaks and how it affects ones experience of the world, or how does culture affect the way children develop toward adulthood.

HUMANISM: emphasizes personal growth, self-esteem, and the achievement of human potential more than the scientific understanding, prediction, and control of behavior. Human beings are not driven by the powerful, instinctive forces postulated by Freudians or manipulated by environments. ………….look for personal values and social conditions that foster self-limiting, aggressive perspectives instead of growth-enhancing, shared experiences. Abraham Maslow: developed the Hierarchy of Needs, stating that each level of needs must be satisfied before one moves onto the next.

Prologue: Contemporary Psychology

Psychology’s Subfields Basic Research Biological psychologists explore the links between brain and mind Developmental psychologists study changing abilities from womb to tomb Cognitive psychologists study how we perceive, think, and solve problems Personality psychologists investigate our persistent traits Social psychologists explore how we view and affect one another

Psychiatry A branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders Practiced by physicians who sometimes use medical (for example, drug) treatments as well as psychotherapy

PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH
Chapter 1

Research Methods Advantages VS Disadvantages

Developing a hypothesis 2) Performing a controlled test
Psychologists, like all scientists, use the scientific method to construct theories that organize observations and imply testable hypotheses Five Steps of the Scientific Method: Developing a hypothesis 2) Performing a controlled test 3) Gathering objective data 4) Analyzing the result/Survival of Hypothesis (refine hypothesis and retest) 5) Publishing, criticizing and replicating the results

Types of Research Experimental Method
Components of the Research Process: 1) Developing a research question 2) Surveying the literature 3) Hypothesis 4) Independent variable 5) Dependent variable 6) Extraneous variables 7) Controls 8) Sampling/Subjects (random assignment to groups) 9) Procedure 10) Results/Statistics 11) Discussion 12) New Hypothesis

The Experiment Advantages Disadvantages Experiments:
Identify cause-and-effect relationships, we conduct experiments 1) Directly vary a condition you might think affects behavior 2) Create two or more groups of subjects, alike in all ways except the condition you are varying 3)Record whether varying the condition has any effect on behavior Clear Cause and Effect relationships can be found Experiment is under complete control of experimenter Advantages Most social behaviors can not be studied with experiments Ethical concerns? Disadvantages

Fig Elements of a simple psychological experiment to assess the effects of music during study on test scores. Table of Contents Exit

Empirical Investigation
Research Strategies--Step 1 Developing a Hypothesis Empirical Investigation *collecting objective information firsthand by making careful measurements based on direct experience. Theory *an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes and predicts observations Hypothesis *a testable prediction *often implied by a theory *MUST be defined operationally

Operational Definition
Research Strategies--Step 1 Developing a Hypothesis Operational Definition *a statement of procedures (operations) used to define research variables *REQUIRED to make your suspicion testable *You MUST describe: independent variables dependent variable list of procedures *Example- *intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures

Research Strategies--Step 2 Performing a Controlled Test
Independent Variable *the experimental factor that is manipulated *the variable whose effect is being studied Think of the independent variable as a condition that the experimenter changes INDEPENDENTLY of all the other controlled experimental conditions.

**the dependent variable must also be given an operational definition.
Research Strategies--Step 3 Gathering Objective Data Dependent Variable *the experimental factor that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable *in psychology it is usually a behavior or mental process, or test. The responses of the participants in an experiment DEPEND directly on the conditions to which they have been exposed. **the dependent variable must also be given an operational definition.

Beware of Confounding Variables
The object of an experiment is to prove that A causes B. A confounding variable is anything that could cause change in B, that is not A. If I wanted to prove that smoking causes heart issues, what are some confounding variables? Lifestyle and family history may also effect the heart.

Other Confounding Variables
Placebo effect Placebo: A fake pill (sugar) or injection (saline) Placebo Effect: Changes in behavior that result from belief that one has ingested a drug Placebos alter our expectations about our own emotional and physical reactions These expectancies then influence bodily activities Relieve pain by getting pituitary to release endorphins Also gain some effect through learning

Experimenter Bias Another confounding variable. Not a conscious act.
Double-Blind Procedure.

Controlling confounding variables
Single Blind Experiment: Only the subjects have no idea whether they get real treatment or placebo Double Blind Experiment: The subjects AND the experimenters have no idea whether the subjects get real treatment or placebo Best type of experiment if properly set up Alleviates Experimenter bias refers to expectations that influence a participant’s behavior. Table of Contents Exit

Limiting Confounding Variables
Validity Ensures that a researcher's experiment design closely follows the principle of cause and effect The researcher can eliminate almost all of the potential confounding variables and set up strong controls to isolate other factors. Reliability refers to the test’s consistency among different administrations. If the test is reliable, the scores that each student receives on the first administration should be similar to the scores on the second

Replication Critics will look for flaws in the research.
Research Strategies--Step 5 Publishing, Criticizing, Replicating the Results Critics will look for flaws in the research. REPLICATION is one way to see if one would get the same results. Replication *repeating the essence of a research study to see whether the basic finding generalizes to other subjects and circumstances *usually with different subjects in different situations

The Barnum Effect Uncritical Acceptance
It is the tendency for people to accept very general or vague characterizations of themselves and take them to be accurate. You can be enormously effective today, dear Gemini, as your inner courage is strong and you feel passionate about most everything you do right now. You might completely revise or renew something now. Draw upon your creative power and use it to make important changes. You might solve a problem revolving around family and the home. However, confusing elements may exist on the job, or with your reputation. Avoid taking things too personally. Uncritical Acceptance Tendency to believe positive or flattering descriptions of yourself

Hindsight Bias I knew it!!!!!!!!
The tendency to believe, after learning the outcome, that you knew it all along. I knew it!!!!!!!! Fallacy of positive instances When we remember or notice information that confirms our expectations and forget the discrepancies

2) Non-Experimental Methods (Descriptive Studies)
Types of Psychological Research: 1) Experimental Method 2) Non-Experimental Methods (Descriptive Studies) 3) Correlational Studies *Survey *Naturalistic Observation *Longitudinal Study *Cross-Sectional Study *Cohort-Sequential Study

Advantages of Experimental Method *cause-and-effect
*operationalization of variables *stresses the control of variables *can implement double-blind or blind procedures *high internal validity *may be replicated Disadvantages of Experimental Method *reduce external validity *difficult to establish adequate control conditions *statistical probability of bias

Correlations Advantages- clear relationships can be seen
a measure of the relationship between two variables. Variable - anything that can change or vary. Measures of two variables go into a mathematical formula and produce a correlation coefficient (r), which represents two things: direction of the relationship. strength of the relationship. Knowing the value of one variable allows researchers to predict the value of the other variable. Advantages- clear relationships can be seen Disadvantages- correlation does not equal causation Menu

Finding Relationships
LO Correlational technique Finding Relationships Correlation coefficient ranges from –1.00 to Closer to 1.00 or -1.00, the stronger the relationship between the variables. No correlation = 0.0. Perfect correlation = OR Positive correlation – variables are related in the same direction. As one increases, the other increases; as one decreases, the other decreases. Negative correlation – variables are related in opposite direction. As one increases, the other decreases. CORRELATION DOES NOT PROVE CAUSATION!!! Menu

Research Strategies Three Possible Cause-Effect Relationships or or
could cause (1) Low self-esteem Depression or (2) Depression could cause Low self-esteem or Low self-esteem (3) Distressing events or biological predisposition could cause and Depression

Disadvantages of Correlation Study *cannot establish cause-and-effect
*prone to inaccurate reporting *hard to access the impact of additional variables *do not allow for the active manipulation of variables. Advantages of Correlation Study *examine, test, reveal, compare or describe relationship between 2 variables *efficient, collect lots of data *make predictions *dispel illusory correlations *utilize preexisting or archival data

The Other Research Methods

Descriptive Methods Naturalistic observation – Major Advantage:
watching animals or humans behave in their normal environment. Major Advantage: Realistic picture of behavior. Disadvantages: Observer effect - tendency of people or animals to behave differently from normal when they know they are being observed. Participant observation - a naturalistic observation in which the observer becomes a participant in the group being observed (to reduce observer effect). Observer bias - tendency of observers to see what they expect to see. Blind observers – people who do not know what the research question is (to reduce observer bias). Each naturalistic setting is unique and observations may not hold.

Descriptive Methods Laboratory observation – Advantages: Disadvantage:
watching animals or humans behave in a laboratory setting. Advantages: Control over environment. Allows use of specialized equipment. Disadvantage: Artificial situation that may result in artificial behavior. Descriptive methods lead to the formation of testable hypotheses. Menu

Descriptive Methods Case study - study of one individual in great detail. Advantage: tremendous amount of detail. Disadvantage: cannot apply to others. Famous case study: Phineas Gage. Menu

Advantages of Case Study
*in-depth, detailed information about the case *opportunity to study unusual cases *time, money issues *ethical considerations Disadvantages of Case Study *results cannot be generalized *prone to inaccurate reporting from source *cannot be used to establish cause-and-effect relationships *biased researcher?

Illusory Correlation *the perception of a relationship where none exists Conceive Do not conceive Adopt Do not adopt disconfirming evidence confirming

Experimental Methods of Research
Statistics

Statistics Recording the results from our studies.
Must use a common language so we all know what we are talking about.

Descriptive Statistics
Just describes sets of data. You might create a frequency distribution. Frequency polygons or histograms.

Central Tendency Mean, Median and Mode.
Watch out for extreme scores or outliers. $25,000-Pam $25,000- Kevin $25,000- Angela $100,000- Andy $100,000- Dwight $200,000- Jim $300,000- Michael Let’s look at the salaries of the employees at Dunder Mifflen Paper in Scranton: The median salary looks good at $100,000. The mean salary also looks good at about $110,000. But the mode salary is only $25,000. Maybe not the best place to work. Then again living in Scranton is kind of cheap.

Other measures of variability
Range: distance from highest to lowest scores Standard Deviation: the variance of scores around the mean. The higher the variance or SD, the more spread out the distribution is. Do scientists want a big or small SD? Dwight and Kobe may both score 30 ppg (same mean). But their SDs are very different.

Normal Distribution In a normal distribution, the mean, median and mode are all the same.

Distributions Outliers skew distributions.
If group has one high score, the curve has a positive skew (contains more low scores) If a group has a low outlier, the curve has a negative skew (contains more high scores)

Scores A unit that measures the distance of one score from the mean.
A positive z score means a number above the mean. A negative z score means a number below the mean.

Normal Distribution

Inferential Statistics
The purpose is to discover whether the finding can be applied to the larger population from which the sample was collected. T-tests, ANOVA or MANOVA P-value= .05 for statistical significance. 5% likely the results are due to chance.

AP Psychology Weekly Announcements
Unit 2 Tests! Mastery manager  FRQ 1 Tomorrow 30 minutes Today Analyze FRQs The good, the bad, the ugly

BIOLOGICAL (Neurophysiological)
Chapter 2

Neural Communication Neuron a nerve cell Dendrite Axon
the bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body Axon the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages are sent to other neurons or to muscles or glands Myelin [MY-uh-lin] Sheath a layer of fatty cells segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons enables vastly greater transmission speed of neutral impulses

Neural Communication

Neural Communication Action Potential
a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon generated by the movement of positively charged atoms in and out of channels in the axon’s membrane Threshold the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse Cell body end of axon Direction of neural impulse: toward axon terminals

Neural Communication Synapse [SIN-aps]
junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron (synaptic gap) Neurotransmitters chemical messengers that traverse the synaptic gaps between neurons when released by the sending neuron, neuro-transmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether it will generate a neural impulse

Dopamine Pathways Serotonin Pathways

Neural Communication Acetylcholine [ah-seat-el-KO-leen]
a neurotransmitter that, among its functions, triggers muscle contraction Endorphins [en-DOR-fins] “morphine within” natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure

Neural Communication Neurotransmitter Receiving cell molecule membrane
Receptor site on receiving neuron Agonist mimics neurotransmitter Antagonist blocks EXAMPLES: Neurotransmitters: dopamine, serotonin Agonists cocaine (increases dopamine in synapse) Antagonist (blocks reuptake) curare SSRI

Serotonin Syndrome: potentially life-threatening
PROBLEMS: Serotonin Syndrome: potentially life-threatening *two drugs increase the level of serotonin at the same time. (ie) migraine medication (triptans) and antidepressants with SSRI (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors) *examples: SSRI = Celexa, Zoloft, Prozac, Zoloft, Paxil, and Lexapro. SNRI's include Cymbalta and Effexor *examples: Triptans = mitrex, Zomig, Frova, Maxalt, Axert, Amerge, and Relpax Drugs of abuse, such as ecstasy and LSD have also been associated with serotonin syndrome.

The ENDOCRINE SYTEM

GONADS (TESTOSTERONE. ESTROGEN, PROGESTERONE)
HYPOTHALAMUS (ADH and OXYTOCIN—Secretes REGULATORY HORMONES) *Primary link between Endocrine and Nervous systems. PINEAL GLAND (MELATONIN) PITUITARY GLAND *Secretes seven important hormones which REGULATE GROWTH THYROID GLAND (TYROSINE, CALCITONIN) THYMUS ( thymosins ) *Two lobes consists--outer CORTEX and a central MEDULLA. PARATHYROID GLANDS ( PARATHORMONE ) ADRENAL GLANDS (CORTICOSTEROIDS, EPINEPHRINE (adrenaline), NOREPINEPHRINE (noradrenaline)) *Lie along the superior borders of the kidneys. PANCREAS (GLUCAGON., INSULIN) GONADS (TESTOSTERONE. ESTROGEN, PROGESTERONE)

The Endocrine System Endocrine System
the body’s “slow” chemical communication system a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream The Endocrine System is made up of tissues or organs called endocrine glands, which secrete chemicals directly into the bloodstream. The chemical messengers are called HORMONES.

The NERVOUS SYSTEM

The Nervous System Central Nervous System (CNS)
the brain and spinal cord Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) the sensory and motor neurons that connect CNS to the rest of the body Nerves neural “cables” containing many axons part of the PNS connect the CNS with muscles, glands, and sense organs Sensory Neurons neurons that carry incoming information from the sense receptors to the CNS

The Nervous System Interneurons
CNS neurons that internally communicate and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs Motor Neurons carry outgoing information from the CNS to muscles and glands Somatic Nervous System the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles

The Nervous System Autonomic Nervous System
the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart) Sympathetic Nervous System division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations Parasympathetic Nervous System division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

The Nervous System Reflex
a simple, automatic, inborn response to a sensory stimulus Inputs Outputs Neurons in the brain connect with one another to form networks The brain learns by modifying certain connections in response to feedback Neural Networks interconnected neural cells with experience, networks can learn, as feedback strengthens or inhibits connections that produce certain results computer simulations of neural networks show analogous learning

The BRAIN

Brain Structures and their Functions

Lesion tissue destruction in the brain a brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue Electroencephalogram (EEG) an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity across the brain’s surface these waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp

The Brain CT (computed tomography) Scan
a series of x-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice through the body; also called CAT scan PET (positron emission tomography) Scan a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue; allows us to see structures within the brain

MRI Scan Normal patient Schizophrenic patient

The Brain Brainstem the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull responsible for automatic survival functions Medulla [muh-DUL-uh] base of the brainstem controls heartbeat and breathing

The Brain Reticular Formation
a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal Thalamus [THAL-uh-muss] the brain’s sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla Cerebellum [sehr-uh-BELL-um] the “little brain” attached to the rear of the brainstem it helps coordinate voluntary movement and balance

The Brain Limbic System
a doughnut-shaped system of neural structures at the border of the brainstem and cerebral hemispheres associated with emotions such as fear and aggression and drives such as those for food and sex includes the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus. Amygdala [ah-MIG-dah-la] two almond-shaped neural clusters that are components of the limbic system and are linked to emotion Hypothalamus neural structure lying below (hypo) the thalamus; directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature, sexual behavior)

The Cerebral Cortex Cerebral Cortex
the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres the body’s ultimate control and information processing center Glial Cells cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons

The Cerebral Cortex Frontal Lobes Parietal Lobes Occipital Lobes
involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments Parietal Lobes includes the sensory cortex Occipital Lobes include the visual areas, which receive visual information from the opposite visual field Temporal Lobes include the auditory areas

The Cerebral Cortex Motor Cortex
area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements Sensory Cortex area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body sensations

Association Areas More intelligent animals have increased “uncommitted” or association areas of the cortex

The Cerebral Cortex Aphasia
impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca’s area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke’s area (impairing understanding) Broca’s Area an area of the left frontal lobe that directs the muscle movements involved in speech Wernicke’s Area an area of the left temporal lobe involved in language comprehension and expression

Specialization and Integration
Brain activity when hearing, seeing, and speaking words

large band of neural fibers connects the two brain hemispheres
Plasticity the brain’s capacity for modification, as evident in brain reorganization following damage (especially in children) and in experiments on the effects of experience on brain development Corpus callosum Corpus Callosum large band of neural fibers connects the two brain hemispheres carries messages between the hemispheres

Split Brain a condition in which the two hemispheres of the brain are isolated by cutting the connecting fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) between them

Right Brain vs. Left Brain
Perception Speaking Spatial-relations Calculations Abstract thought Speech Intuitive thought Songs Writing Logic Analysis Whole picture vs. Details Emotion vs. Content

NATURE v. NURTURE Chapter 3

Genes: Our Biological Blueprint
Chromosomes threadlike structures made of DNA that contain the genes All human cells contain the diploid number of chromosomes (46) consisting of 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes Two of this set are X and Y (the sex chromosomes) and the other 22 pairs are autosomes that guide the expression of other traits. KARYOTYPE of a male: The human haploid genome contains 3,000,000,000 DNA nucleotide pairs, divided among twenty two (22) pairs of autosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes.

Genes: Our Biological Blueprint
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes has two strands-forming a “double helix”- held together by bonds between pairs of nucleotides DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) Four major varieties of nitrogen-containing bases can contribute to nucleotide structure: Adenine Guanine Cytosine Thymine

Genetics and Behavior Genes
biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes a segment of DNA capable of synthesizing a protein Genome *the complete instructions for making an organism consisting of all the genetic material in its chromosomes *Represents two sets of genetic instructions--one from the egg and one from the sperm

Evolutionary Psychology
Natural Selection the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations Mutations random errors in gene replication that lead to a change in the sequence of nucleotides the source of all genetic diversity

Behavior Genetics Identical Twins Fraternal Twins
Same sex only Same or opposite sex Identical Twins develop from a single zygote (fertilized egg) that splits in two, creating two genetic replicas Fraternal Twins develop from separate zygotes genetically no closer than brothers and sisters, but they share the fetal environment Identical twins may have separate placentas and blood flow, just like fraternal twins. Two placental arrangements in identical twins a) Splits early, about 5th day b) Splits between 5th and 12th day, greater mortality, greater abnormalities

Eggs that split after the 12th day results in conjoined twins.
Parapagus Pygopagus Thoracopagus Parasite Parapagus

A little known (and very rare) genetic situation results in the TETRAGAMETIC CHIMERISM. . . someone who has at least two different genotypes which each arose from an individual zygote and eventually fused, when normally they would have developed separately as twins.

Behavior Genetics Temperament
a person’s characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity Heritability the proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied Interaction the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity) Molecular Genetics the subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes

Environmental Influence
Experience affects brain development Impoverished environment Rat brain cell Enriched In 14 to 16 repetitions of this basic experiment, the rats placed in the enriched environment developed significantly more cerebral cortex.

Environmental Influence
Culture the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next Norm an understood rule for accepted and expected behavior Personal Space the buffer zone we like to maintain around our bodies Memes self-replicating ideas, fashions, and innovation passed from person to person

The Nature and Nurture of Gender
X Chromosome the sex chromosome found in both men and women females have two; males have one an X chromosome from each parent produces a female Y Chromosome the sex chromosome found only in men when paired with an X chromosome from the mother, it produces a male child

Testosterone the most important of the male sex hormones both males and females have it additional testosterone in males stimulates growth of male sex organs in the fetus development of male sex characteristics during puberty Role a set of expectations (norms) about a social position defining how those in the position ought to behave

Social Learning Theory theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished Gender Schema Theory theory that children learn from their cultures a concept of what it means to be male and female and that they adjust their behavior accordingly Gender Role a set of expected behaviors for males and females Gender Identity one’s sense of being male or female Gender-typing the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role

Two theories of gender typing

DEVELOPMENT Chapter 4

Developmental Psychology
a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive and social change throughout the life span Zygote the fertilized egg enters a 2 week period of rapid cell division develops into an embryo Embryo the developing human organism from 2 weeks through 2nd month Fetus the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth

Teratogens agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm (nuclear fallout, food allergies, medicine taken by mother during pregnancy, alcohol, drugs, et.al.) Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman’s heavy drinking. symptoms include facial misproportions

The Newborn Rooting Reflex
tendency to open mouth, and search for nipple when touched on the cheek Preferences human voices and faces facelike images--> smell and sound of mother Babinsky Reflex tendency to grasp an object when when placed into their hands and lift them up by their clasped fists Newborn Reflexes *rooting reflex *sucking reflex *grasping reflex *swallowing reflex *startle (moro) reflex *babinsky reflex

The Newborn Habituation
decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation newborns become bored with a repeated stimulus, but renew their attention to a slightly different stimulus At birth 3 months 15 months Cortical Neurons Maturation biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior relatively uninfluenced by experience sets the course for development while experience adjusts it

Infancy and Childhood Babies only 3 months old can learn that kicking moves a mobile- and can retain that learning for a month (Rovee-Collier, 1989).

Cognitive Development
Cognition mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, and remembering Schema a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information Assimilation interpreting one’s new experience in terms of one’s existing schemas Accommodation adapting one’s current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
Jean Piaget ( ) Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development Typical Age Range Description of Stage Developmental Phenomena Birth to nearly 2 years Sensorimotor Experiencing the world through senses and actions (looking, touching, mouthing) Object permanence Stranger anxiety About 2 to 6 years About 7 to 11 years About 12 through adulthood Preoperational Representing things with words and images but lacking logical reasoning Pretend play Egocentrism Language development Concrete operational Thinking logically about concrete events; grasping concrete analogies and performing arithmetical operations Conservation Mathematical transformations Formal operational Abstract reasoning Abstract logic Potential for moral reasoning Handout 4-4 and 4-11

Infancy and Childhood: Cognitive Development
Object Permanence the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived (Piaget: Sensorimotor) Conservation the principle that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects (Piaget: Concrete Operational)

Cognitive Development
Baby Mathematics Shown a numerically impossible outcome, infants stare longer (Wynn, 1992) Egocentrism the inability of the preoperational child to take another’s point of view (Piaget: Preoperational) Theory of Mind people’s ideas about their own and others’ mental states- about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts and the behavior these might predict (Piaget: Preoperational) Autism a disorder that appears in childhood Marked by deficient communication, social interaction and understanding of others’ states of mind

Lev S. Vygotsky (1896-1934) SocioCultural Theory of Development
Born in Russia (Jewish) Law degree Unive of Moscow PhD Literature & Linguistics *humans use various symbols and items that help us to develop cultures *we change, interact and go through development within our cultures *higherﾊthinking skills depend on the internalization of the items we used to develop within our culture and communicate. *used blocks to distinguish children's mastery of the concept from simple memorization **His work was suppressed by Marxist Russian authorities for over 20 years after his death. SocioCultural Theory of Development FACETS (not stages) Private Speech: talking to oneself Proximal Development: is the level of development immediately above a person's present level to achieve maximum learning Scaffolding: using hints and pointers from teachers, parents, and peers who have already grasped the desired concept, children are able to form their own path toward a solution

Vygotsky v. Piaget Both Piaget and Vygotsky viewed pre-school children in problem solving situations talking to themselves. When Piaget labeled the self directed behavior as egocentric and believed it only minimum relevant to children’s cognitive growth, Vygotsky referred to it as a private speech. He argued that private speech grows out of the children’s interaction with parents and other adults and through such interactions, they begin to use their parent’s instructional comments to direct their own behavior. REF:

Abnormal Development PHENYLKETONURIA (PKU): a metabolic disorder that, left untreated, results in mental retardation and other problems. **inability of the body to utilize the essential amino acid, phenylalanine. Amino acids are the building blocks for body proteins. We get amino acids from food. In “classic PKU” the enzyme that breaks down this amino acid is completely deficient causing phenylalanine to accumulate in the blood and body tissues. **high levels of phenylalanine can cause significant brain problems. **symptoms include; vomiting, irritability, rash, mousy odor to the urine, nervous problems, increased muscle tone, more active muscle tendon reflexes. Later, severe brain problems occur, mental retardation and seizures. Other features include: microcephaly (small head), prominent cheek and upper jaw bones with widely spaced teeth, poor development of tooth enamel and decreased body growth.

PKU DIET Resource;

Abnormal Development TAY-SACH’s DISEASE: deterioration of the brain of a one-year old child due to accumulation of fat on the brain, caused by insufficient activity of an enzyme called beta-hexosaminidase A that catalyzes the biodegradation of acidic fatty materials known as gangliosides. *this child will usually die before age 4 *infants with this disease appear to develop normally for first few months of iife. *symptoms: deterioration of mental & physical abilities, blindness, deafness, inability to swallow, seizures, dementia, increased startle reflex, muscles atrophy and paralysis sets in. MONOSOMY X (TURNER SYNDROME): the only known viable human monosomy (missing one chromosome) ** 1 in 5000 births **XO phenotype female; sex organs do not mature at adolescence, and secondary sex characteristics fail to develop **sterile and short **no mental deficiency

Abnormal Development ANDROGYNY: having both female and male characteristics; HERMAPHRODITIC **may be raised as one sex or another as genetalia is ambiguous **failure to develop breasts, milk-glands, child-bearing hips, no menses, sterility, beard growth, male vocal chords, TOURETTE’S SYNDROME: neurological disorder which becomes evident in early childhood or adolescence before the age of 18 years. *multiple motor and vocal tics lasting for more than a year. *symptoms include: involuntary movements of the face, arms, limbs, or trunk……frequent, repetitive and rapid…..such as eye blink, nose twitch, grimace. *causal evidence points to abnormal metabolism of at least one brain neurotransmitter, dopamine.

Social Development Stranger Anxiety
fear of strangers that infants commonly display beginning by about 8 months of age Attachment an emotional tie with another person shown in young children by seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation

Mary Ainsworth (1979) observed mother-infant pairs at home during their first 6 months. Later, she observed 1 year old infants in strange situations without their mothers. Sensitive-responsive mothers had infants who exhibited SECURE ATTACHMENT. Insensitive-unresponsive mothers--those who ignored their children at times--had children who exhibited INSECURE ATTACHMENT. She is known for her work in the development of ATTACHMENT THEORY. Placed in a strange situation, 60% of infants display SECURE ATTACHMENT. They play comfortably and explore their new environment. Others show INSECURE ATTACHMENT. These infants cling to their mother and are slow to explore their surroundings.

Harlow’s Surrogate Mother Experiments
Harry Harlow 1930, BA, PhD Stanford Univ Faculty, Univ of Wisconsin Worked with Abraham Maslow Harlow’s Surrogate Mother Experiments Monkeys preferred contact with the comfortable cloth mother, even while feeding from the nourishing wire mother

Social Development Monkeys raised by artificial mothers were terror-stricken when placed in strange situations without their surrogate mothers.

Konrad Lorenz (1903-1989) Critical Period
From his initial analysis of imprinting, Lorenz went on to identify the essential components of innate behavior and developed the central constructs of releasers and fixed action patterns which serve as the foundation of the study of animal behavior. Critical Period an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism’s exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development Imprinting the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life Temperament a person’s characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity

Social Development Basic Trust (Erik Erikson)
a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers Self-Concept a sense of one’s identity and personal worth

Social Development- Child-Rearing Practices
Studies by Stanley Coopersmith (1967), Diana Baumrind (1996) and John Buri (1988) reveal that children with the highest self-esteem, self-reliance, and social competence usually have warm, concerned, AUTHORITATIVE parents. Although most studies are done with white middle-class families, studies in other cultures with other races in more than 200 cultures worldwide confirm these findings. Authoritarian parents impose rules and expect obedience “Don’t interrupt” “Why? Because I said so.” Authoritative parents are both demanding and responsive set rules, but explain reasons encourage discussion Permissive submit to children’s desires make few demands use little punishment Rejecting-neglecting disengaged expect little invest little

Social Development- Child-Rearing Practices
Authoritarian ADVANTAGE: little time DISADVANTAGE: frail obedient children who may feel hopeless; children may become rebellious and grow to have an insecure outlook on life. Authoritative ADVANTAGE: children who talk and discuss, incorporate understanding; children grow to be confident and trusting of the world. DISADVANTAGE: takes time to explain and discuss High education, ample income, harmonious marriage, common genes (3) Some third factor may be influencing both parents and child. (1) Parent’s behavior may be influencing child. Authoritative parents (2) Child’s behavior may be influencing parents. Self-reliant, Socially competent child Three explanations for correlation between authoritative parenting and social competence

Adolescence Adolescence
the transition period from childhood to adulthood extending from puberty to independence Puberty the period of sexual maturation when one first becomes capable of reproduction Primary Sex Characteristics body structures that make sexual reproduction possible ovaries- female testes- male external genitalia Secondary Sex Characteristics nonreproductive sexual characteristics female- enlarged breasts, hips male- voice quality, body hair Menarche (meh-NAR-key) first menstrual period

Should the tailor report Valjean to the police? Why or why not?
The Heinz Dilemma In a county in Europe, a poor man named Valjean could find no work, nor could his sister and brother. Without money, he stole food and medicine that they needed. He was captured and sentenced to prison for 6 years. After a couple of years, he escaped from the prison and went to live in another part of the country under a new name. He saved money and slowly built up a factory. He gave his workers the highest wages and used most of his profits to build a hospital for people who couldn’t afford good medical care. Twenty years had passed when a tailor recognized the factory owner as being Valjean, the escaped convict whom the police had been looking for back in his hometown. Should the tailor report Valjean to the police? Why or why not?

Kohlberg’s Moral Ladder
As moral development progresses, the focus of concern moves from the self to the wider social world. 5. “Although turning Valjean in may not be perfectly just, leaving such decisions up to each person’s judgment would result in greater injustice” (Affirms agreed-upon rights) Morality of abstract principles: to affirm agreed-upon rights and personal ethical principles Postconventional level 4. “There has to be respect for the law” (duty to society/avoids dishonor or guilt) Morality of law and social rules: to gain approval or avoid disapproval Conventional level 3. “If you don’t report him, everyone will think you are just as much a criminal” (gains approval/avoids disapproval) Morality of self-interest: to avoid punishment or gain concrete rewards 2. “The tailor may get a reward for turning in a criminal.” (gains/rewards) Preconventional level 1. “The tailor will be in trouble if he doesn’t tell the police.” (avoid punishment)

NOTE: the authors gave no Stage 6 response
NOTE: the authors gave no Stage 6 response. This is partly because none of the answers reflected Stage 6 responses. Kohlberg and Colby conclude that, “the question of whether Stage 6 should be included as a natural psychological stage will remain unresolved until research is conducted with a special sample of people likely to have developed beyond Stage 6.” At one time Kohlberg proposed a Stage 7, which reflected a cosmic orientation in which one is motivated to be true to universal principles and feels oneself part of a cosmic direction transcending social norms. Lawrence Kohlberg Harvard University

Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development
Erik Erikson Freudian ego-psychologist Approximate age Stage Description of Task Infancy Trust vs. mistrust If needs are dependably met, infants (1st year) develop a sense of basic trust. Toddler Autonomy vs. shame Toddlers learn to exercise will and (2nd year) and doubt do things for themselves, or they doubt their abilities. Preschooler Initiative vs. guilt Preschoolers learn to initiate tasks (3-5 years) and carry out plans, or they feel guilty about efforts to be independent. Elementary Competence vs Children learn the pleasure of applying (6 years- inferiority themselves to tasks, or they feel puberty) inferior.

Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development
Approximate age Stage Description of Task Adolescence Identity vs. role Teenagers work at refining a sense of self by (teens into confusion testing roles and then integrating them to 20’s) form a single identity, or they become confused about who they are. Young Adult Intimacy vs. Young adults struggle to form close relation- (20’s to early isolation ships and to gain the capacity for intimate 40’s) love, or they feel socially isolated. Middle Adult Generativity vs. The middle-aged discover a sense of contri- (40’s to 60’s) stagnation buting to the world, usually through family and work, or they may feel a lack of purpose. Late Adult Integrity vs. When reflecting on his or her life, the older (late 60’s and despair adult may feel a sense of satisfaction or up) failure.

In each stage, conflict arises between newly emerging personality needs and social demands and culminates in a crisis, not in the sense of a catastrophe but rather represents a turning point in development. Erikson noted, however, that all the personality components develop to some extent throughout life, even before their critical stages. To some extent, they may develop in parallel and are interdependent even before the relevant crises are resolved.

Social Development Identity one’s sense of self
the adolescent’s task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles Intimacy the ability to form close, loving relationships a primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood

ADULTHOOD “Consider, friend, as you pass by, as you are now, so once was I. As I am now, you too shall be. Prepare, therefore, to follow me.” --Scottish tombstone epitaph

Adulthood- Physical Changes
Menopause the time of natural cessation of menstruation also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines Alzheimer’s Disease a progressive and irreversible brain disorder characterized by a gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and finally, physical functioning

Adulthood- Cognitive Changes
Reasoning ability score Cross-Sectional Study a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another Longitudinal Study a study in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period Cross-sectional method suggests decline 60 55 50 Longitudinal method suggests more stability 45 40 35 25 32 39 46 53 60 67 74 81 Age in years Cross-sectional method Longitudinal method

Verbal intelligence scores hold steady with age, while nonverbal intelligence scores decline (adapted from Kaufman & others, 1989). Intelligence (IQ) score Verbal scores are stable with age 105 100 95 90 Nonverbal scores decline with age 85 80 75 20 25 35 45 55 65 70 Verbal scores Nonverbal scores Age group

Crystallized Intelligence one’s accumulated knowledge and verbal skills tends to increase with age Fluid Intelligence ones ability to reason speedily and abstractly tends to decrease during late adulthood

The stages Kubler-Ross identified are:
• Denial (this isn't happening to me!) • Anger (why is this happening to me?) • Bargaining (I promise I'll be a better person if...) • Depression (I don't care anymore) • Acceptance (I'm ready for whatever comes) Many people believe that these stages of grief are also experienced by people who have lost a loved one. Many people have tried to explain what grief is; some have even identified certain stages of grief.Probably the most well-known of these might be from Elizabeth Kubler-Ross' book, "On Death and Dying."

AP PSYCHOLOGY Review for the AP Exam Chapter 1-4

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