1. Motivational Problem Exercises Based on Simple Experiments Josef Trna Faculty of Education, Masaryk University Faculty of Education, Masaryk University Brno, Czech Republic trna@ped.muni.cz trna@ped.muni.cztrna@ped.muni.cz

2. 1 Cognitive Motivation in Science Education Teachers are limited in methods how to improve students’ attitude to science education. Teachers are limited in methods how to improve students’ attitude to science education. There is need for innovation of educational strategies and development of new educational technologies. There is need for innovation of educational strategies and development of new educational technologies. Cognitive motivation of students, playing a crucial role in attracting students to science, seems to be a key idea in these processes. Cognitive motivation of students, playing a crucial role in attracting students to science, seems to be a key idea in these processes. We can apply a set of cognitive motivational teaching techniques, some of which appear to be very important: We can apply a set of cognitive motivational teaching techniques, some of which appear to be very important: (1) problem exercises (1) problem exercises (2) simple experiments with everyday objects (2) simple experiments with everyday objects (3) information from everyday life. (3) information from everyday life.

3. Problem Exercises Problem solving (Maslow 1954, Woods 1994) is an important need for every human. Problem solving (Maslow 1954, Woods 1994) is an important need for every human. Psychological base of increasing cognitive needs is “perceptional and conceptual conflict” (Berlyne 1977, Hrabal & Man & Pavelkova 1989). Psychological base of increasing cognitive needs is “perceptional and conceptual conflict” (Berlyne 1977, Hrabal & Man & Pavelkova 1989). This conflict becomes an incentive what causes a strong motivation in science lessons and so students becomes active which heads towards conflict elimination and satisfaction of the need. This conflict becomes an incentive what causes a strong motivation in science lessons and so students becomes active which heads towards conflict elimination and satisfaction of the need. An induction of that conflict has several variants (Berlyne 1977): surprise, paradox, doubt, uncertainty and difficulty. An induction of that conflict has several variants (Berlyne 1977): surprise, paradox, doubt, uncertainty and difficulty. These variants are going to be used for the creation of a set of motivational problem exercises. These variants are going to be used for the creation of a set of motivational problem exercises.

4. Simple Experiments Simple Experiments Simple experiments have many characteristics placing them at the top of cognitive motivational techniques: transparency of presentation of science phenomenon base. Simple experiments have many characteristics placing them at the top of cognitive motivational techniques: transparency of presentation of science phenomenon base. This transparency is given especially by the three following factors: This transparency is given especially by the three following factors: (1) Reduction an extra phenomena which may occur within an (1) Reduction an extra phenomena which may occur within an experiment. experiment. (2) Qualitativeness of an experiment when students’ attention is not (2) Qualitativeness of an experiment when students’ attention is not taken away from phenomenon base to unnecessary measure. taken away from phenomenon base to unnecessary measure. (3) Easy realization by students who perceive an experiment with (3) Easy realization by students who perceive an experiment with every sense. every sense. The significant group of simple experiments are simple experiments with everyday objects (hands-on experiments). So the transparency of phenomenon base observation is supported thanks to the fact that students know these objects from their everyday life, so their attention is not taken away from the demonstrated experiment and they can concentrate on the demonstrated phenomenon. The significant group of simple experiments are simple experiments with everyday objects (hands-on experiments). So the transparency of phenomenon base observation is supported thanks to the fact that students know these objects from their everyday life, so their attention is not taken away from the demonstrated experiment and they can concentrate on the demonstrated phenomenon.

5. Everyday Life The application of information from everyday life in science education is a source of strong cognitive motivation. The application of information from everyday life in science education is a source of strong cognitive motivation. Important applications possible for using in science education are the following: Important applications possible for using in science education are the following: (1) Human organism: Students are acquainted with human body parameters which can be expressed with the aid of quantities, units and laws. Also external conditions are important for preservation of vital functions of the human organism including health protection against negative extraneous influence. (1) Human organism: Students are acquainted with human body parameters which can be expressed with the aid of quantities, units and laws. Also external conditions are important for preservation of vital functions of the human organism including health protection against negative extraneous influence. (2) Home, entertainment, sports etc: Students can be motivated by explanation of a base of commonly used domestic equipment such as heat and light sources, means of transport, audiovisual technique, chemical agents, domestic plants and animals, information on safe, economical and ecological working at home and at work, entertainment, sports etc. (2) Home, entertainment, sports etc: Students can be motivated by explanation of a base of commonly used domestic equipment such as heat and light sources, means of transport, audiovisual technique, chemical agents, domestic plants and animals, information on safe, economical and ecological working at home and at work, entertainment, sports etc. According to cognitive constructivism, students’ preconceptions are an important basis for their education. From the view of motivation, students’ preconceptions are a source of cognitive motivation. According to cognitive constructivism, students’ preconceptions are an important basis for their education. From the view of motivation, students’ preconceptions are a source of cognitive motivation.

6. Result: Combined cognitive motivational teaching technique is formed by problem exercises based on simple experiments with everyday objects.

7. 2 Surprise Students have knowledge of natural object or phenomenon gained through their own experience and learning. This object or phenomenon is presented in surprising problem exercise so that it conflicts with expectation arising from students’ existing knowledge. The contrast between students’ expectation and presented exercise is an incentive causing students’ cognitive motivation. Students have knowledge of natural object or phenomenon gained through their own experience and learning. This object or phenomenon is presented in surprising problem exercise so that it conflicts with expectation arising from students’ existing knowledge. The contrast between students’ expectation and presented exercise is an incentive causing students’ cognitive motivation. Students then make cognitive activity, conditioned on motivation, for elimination of this contrast by solving the surprising problem with the aid of logical thinking, calculation, measurement, experiment or their combination. Students then make cognitive activity, conditioned on motivation, for elimination of this contrast by solving the surprising problem with the aid of logical thinking, calculation, measurement, experiment or their combination. The typical question of a motivated student is: The typical question of a motivated student is: „WHY IT IS NOT POSSIBLE?” „WHY IT IS NOT POSSIBLE?”

8. Paper ball We make a ball from a piece of toilet paper and put it into toilet paper tube. The ball of shaped paper has to have the same diameter as the tube but it must not fall out spontaneously. We hold the vertical tube with paper ball in one hand and try to tap with the other hand palm with splayed fingers on the top of the tube to get the ball out of the tube. But the ball does not fall out and surprisingly crawls upwards inside the tube. We make a ball from a piece of toilet paper and put it into toilet paper tube. The ball of shaped paper has to have the same diameter as the tube but it must not fall out spontaneously. We hold the vertical tube with paper ball in one hand and try to tap with the other hand palm with splayed fingers on the top of the tube to get the ball out of the tube. But the ball does not fall out and surprisingly crawls upwards inside the tube. Explanation: Surprising behaviour of the ball is caused by its inertia. Explanation: Surprising behaviour of the ball is caused by its inertia.

9. Balance on a surface We put a high block of polystyrene on the water surface in a vessel with its big sidewall. The block in a stable position is lying on the surface. Then we sink a load (screw, nut etc.) into the centre of a small base of the second block, same as the first one. If we put the second block with its big sidewall down on the water surface, it surprisingly stands up on its small base. Explanation: Surprising behaviour of the second block is caused by lowering of the centre of block mass thanks to the load.

10. 3 Paradox Paradox is an obvious conflict with “common sense”, then with students’ knowledge and experiences. Psychological basis of paradoxical problem exercise is similar to the previous principle of surprise but the motivational effect is extreme and influences all students universally. Paradoxical phenomena and experiments played an important role in the history of science discoveries. There are known hydrostatics and hydrodynamics paradoxes from fluid mechanics and paradox of twins from the relativity theory etc. Paradox is an obvious conflict with “common sense”, then with students’ knowledge and experiences. Psychological basis of paradoxical problem exercise is similar to the previous principle of surprise but the motivational effect is extreme and influences all students universally. Paradoxical phenomena and experiments played an important role in the history of science discoveries. There are known hydrostatics and hydrodynamics paradoxes from fluid mechanics and paradox of twins from the relativity theory etc. Paradoxical problem exercises initiate conditioned cognitive motivational activity guiding students to the removal of the paradoxical conflict from their mind. Paradoxical problem exercises initiate conditioned cognitive motivational activity guiding students to the removal of the paradoxical conflict from their mind. The typical statement of a motivated student is: The typical statement of a motivated student is: „I DO NOT BELIEVE IT IS POSSIBLE!”

11. Freezing mixture We put crushed ice into a glass and fill it up with salt. Then we stir the mixture and after a while we measure the temperature of the liquid at the bottom of the glass. The temperature of the liquid is deep under the freezing point of water. It reaches up to minus twenty degrees Celsius. Paradoxically, the water does not freeze at the temperature lower than freezing point of water. Explanation: Very cool liquid is not water but hypothermic solution of salt in water.

12. Solidity of a paper We place a strip of soft paper over an empty glass. A coin put on this paper strip falls into the glass because the paper strip does not hold it. If we pleat the same paper strip, the coin does not fall in. The pleated paper strip holds even a column of coins. Explanation: There is needed a much greater deformational force to deform pleated paper with vertical carriage than flat paper.

13. 4 Doubt Doubt about natural laws validity appears if a phenomenon is presented with the aid of an experiment when natural law conditions are not fully observed. Thus a conflict in the shape of doubt about natural law validity emerges. Doubt about natural laws validity appears if a phenomenon is presented with the aid of an experiment when natural law conditions are not fully observed. Thus a conflict in the shape of doubt about natural law validity emerges. This doubt is an incentive resulted in significantly motivated proving of natural law validity and searching for its validity limits. Knowledge of law as well as skill of its application during problem solving is strengthened. This doubt is an incentive resulted in significantly motivated proving of natural law validity and searching for its validity limits. Knowledge of law as well as skill of its application during problem solving is strengthened. The typical question is: The typical question is: „WHY IS THE LAW NOT VALID?”

14. Non-floating polystyrene We fill a glass of water halfway. Then we place a small piece of polystyrene floating on the surface. We cover the piece of polystyrene on the surface with a second smaller glass and press it vertically on the bottom. The piece of polystyrene almost touches the bottom and does not float on the original surface in the bigger glass. We fill a glass of water halfway. Then we place a small piece of polystyrene floating on the surface. We cover the piece of polystyrene on the surface with a second smaller glass and press it vertically on the bottom. The piece of polystyrene almost touches the bottom and does not float on the original surface in the bigger glass. Explanation: This is not about invalidity of the law of solids floating since the piece of polystyrene floats on the new lower water surface.

15. Boil of water We fill a plastic syringe fully with hot water (not boiling) at a temperature lower than 100 degrees Celsius. After filling we deck the spike and swiftly pull the piston up. The water begins to boil again. The experiment can be repeated several times. Explanation: Water boils at lowered pressure at the temperature lower than 100 degrees Celsius.

16. 5 Uncertainty A student is offered several possible solutions in this problem exercise. Thus there arises a conflict in the shape of uncertainty by the student. A student is offered several possible solutions in this problem exercise. Thus there arises a conflict in the shape of uncertainty by the student. Motivated student’s behaviour follows and results in searching for the correct solution by choice of the offered alternatives. An uncertainty problem exercise is based on simple experiment with everyday objects including alternatives in solution. Motivated student’s behaviour follows and results in searching for the correct solution by choice of the offered alternatives. An uncertainty problem exercise is based on simple experiment with everyday objects including alternatives in solution. The typical question of a motivated student is: The typical question of a motivated student is: „WHAT IS CORRECT?”

17. Melting ice We fill a glass fully with lukewarm water and put an ice cube inside so that the excess water spills. A piece of ice extends from the surface. Evaporation of water is negligible. Ice melts after a while. What situation comes after melting? (a) water surface level does not change and water does not spill (a) water surface level does not change and water does not spill (b) water surface level lowers (b) water surface level lowers (c) a bit of water spills (c) a bit of water spills Correct solution is: (a) From Archimedes’ principle and phenomenon conditions follows that volume of water created by melting of ice is the same as that of water overflowed during the experiment with melting ice.

18. Paradoxical cylinder We glue a coin on the base of a polystyrene cylinder. The coin has the same diameter as the cylinder. Height of the polystyrene cylinder will be adapted so that only the coin extends from the surface of the water. We turn the cylinder coin down and place it in the water again. How deep will the cylinder with the coin dip? (a) the height of an extending polystyrene is the same as the height of the coin (b) polystyrene will not extend from the surface since the coin pulls it to the bottom (c) the higher part of polystyrene than the coin will extend from the surface Correct solution is: (a) This is about Archimedes’ principle application. Weight of the cylinder does not change during turning and therefore buoyant force and volume of the sunken part of the cylinder will be the same.

19. 6 Difficulty If we assign complicated or seemingly insolvable problem exercise, a student can be motivated to solve this exercise and so satisfy cognitive needs and need for success. We have to be careful in the determination of an appropriate level of difficulty in the problem exercise. If we assign complicated or seemingly insolvable problem exercise, a student can be motivated to solve this exercise and so satisfy cognitive needs and need for success. We have to be careful in the determination of an appropriate level of difficulty in the problem exercise. Problem exercise must not be too difficult not to discourage students from solving and demotivate them. Many of these problem exercises are based on riddles and tricks. A difficulty problem exercise includes simple experiment with everyday objects causing difficulty of solution. Problem exercise must not be too difficult not to discourage students from solving and demotivate them. Many of these problem exercises are based on riddles and tricks. A difficulty problem exercise includes simple experiment with everyday objects causing difficulty of solution. The typical statement of a motivated student is: The typical statement of a motivated student is: „I HAVE TO DISCOVER IT!”

20. Glass and coin A coin is lying on the bottom of a glass with a smooth surface, flaring upwards. The task is to take the coin out of the glass without touching the coin or overturning the glass. Solution: By whirl motion with increasing speed, we put the coin in spiral motion upwards along the inside glass wall until the coin flies out of the glass by centrifugal force.

21. Tornado in a bottle We warm two plastic caps up in flame and connect them together on their upper parts. Then we bore a hole through the connected caps. We screw two plastic bottles together with the aid of the connected caps and one bottle fill almost completely with water. The connected bottles are put in vertical position with the full one up. Only a small amount of water passes through into the lower bottle, the rest remains in the upper bottle thanks to underpressure. The task is to move the water from the upper bottle into the lower one without opening or damaging of the bottles. Solution: We whirl water in the upper bottle by whirl motion of connected bottles in vertical position. There arises a narrow air tunnel in rotating water in the axis of the bottle. The air is pumped through the tunnel over from the lower bottle into the space over the water and the air pressure begins to become. The water begins to overflow into the lower bottle. Whirlpool phenomenon is similar to a tornado.

22. Thank you! Josef Trna Faculty of Education, Masaryk University Brno, Czech Republic trna@ped.muni.cz trna@ped.muni.cztrna@ped.muni.cz