1. 1 1 Using assessment to support learning: why, what and how? Dylan Wiliam, Institute of Education www.dylanwiliam.net

2. 2 2 Overview of presentation Why raising achievement is important Why investing in teachers is the answer Why assessment for learning should be the focus Why teacher learning communities should be the mechanism How we can put this into practice

3. 3 3 Raising achievement matters For individuals –Increased lifetime salary –Improved health For society –Lower criminal justice costs –Lower health-care costs –Increased economic growth

4. 4 4 Where’s the solution? Structure –Small high schools –K-8 schools Alignment –Curriculum reform –Textbook replacement Governance –Charter schools –Vouchers Technology

5. 5 5 School effectiveness 3 generations of effectiveness research –Raw results approaches Different schools get different results Conclusion: Schools make a difference –Demographic-based approaches Demographic factors account for most of the variation Conclusion: Schools don’t make a difference –Value-added approaches School-level differences in value-added are relatively small Classroom-level differences in value-added are large Conclusion: An effective school is little more than a school full of effective classrooms

6. 6 6 It’s the classroom Variability at the classroom level is up to 4 times greater than at school level It’s not class size It’s not the between-class grouping strategy It’s not the within-class grouping strategy It’s the teacher

7. 7 7 Teacher quality A labor force issue with 2 solutions –Replace existing teachers with better ones? No evidence that more pay brings in better teachers No evidence that there are better teachers out there deterred by certification requirements –Improve the effectiveness of existing teachers The “love the one you’re with” strategy It can be done We know how to do it, but at scale? Quickly? Sustainably?

8. 8 8 Cost/effect comparisons InterventionEffect (sd) Cost/yr Class-size reduction (by 30%)0.1$20k Increase teacher content knowledge by 2 sd 0.05? Formative assessment/ Assessment for learning 0.2$2k

9. 9 9 Learning power environments Key concept: –Teachers do not create learning –Learners create learning Teaching as engineering learning environments Key features: –Create student engagement (pedagogies of engagement) –Well-regulated (pedagogies of contingency)

10. 10 Why pedagogies of engagement? Intelligence is partly inherited –So what? Intelligence is partly environmental –Environment creates intelligence –Intelligence creates environment Learning environments –High cognitive demand –Inclusive –Obligatory

11. 11 Why pedagogies of contingency? Several major reviews of the research –Natriello (1987) –Crooks (1988) –Kluger & DeNisi (1996) –Black & Wiliam (1998) –Nyquist (2003) All find consistent, substantial effects

12. 12 Types of formative assessment Long-cycle –Span: across units, terms –Length: four weeks to one year Medium-cycle –Span: within and between teaching units –Length: one to four weeks Short-cycle –Span: within and between lessons –Length: day-by-day: 24 to 48 hours minute-by-minute: 5 seconds to 2 hours

13. 13 Effects of formative assessment Long-cycle –Student monitoring –Curriculum alignment Medium-cycle –Improved, student-involved, assessment –Improved teacher cognition about learning Short-cycle –Improved classroom practice –Improved student engagement

14. 14 Kinds of feedback (Nyquist, 2003) Weaker feedback only –Knowledge of results (KoR) Feedback only –KoR + clear goals or knowledge of correct results (KCR) Weak formative assessment –KCR+ explanation (KCR+e) Moderate formative assessment –(KCR+e) + specific actions for gap reduction Strong formative assessment –(KCR+e) + activity

15. 15 Effect of formative assessment (HE) NEffect Weaker feedback only310.16 Feedback only480.23 Weaker formative assessment490.30 Moderate formative assessment410.33 Strong formative assessment160.51

16. 16 Formative assessment Classroom assessment is not (necessarily) formative assessment Formative assessment is not (necessarily) classroom assessment

17. 17 Formative assessment Assessment for learning is any assessment for which the first priority in its design and practice is to serve the purpose of promoting pupils’ learning. It thus differs from assessment designed primarily to serve the purposes of accountability, or of ranking, or of certifying competence. An assessment activity can help learning if it provides information to be used as feedback, by teachers, and by their pupils, in assessing themselves and each other, to modify the teaching and learning activities in which they are engaged. Such assessment becomes ‘formative assessment’ when the evidence is actually used to adapt the teaching work to meet learning needs. Black et al., 2002

18. 18 Feedback and formative assessment “Feedback is information about the gap between the actual level and the reference level of a system parameter which is used to alter the gap in some way” (Ramaprasad, 1983 p. 4) Three key instructional processes –Establishing where learners are in their learning –Establishing where they are going –Establishing how to get there

19. 19 Aspects of formative assessment Where the learner is going Where the learner is How to get there Teacher Clarify learning intentions Engineering effective discussions Providing feedback that moves learners on Peer Understand/ clarify criteria for success Activating students as instructional resources for one another Learner Understand criteria for success Activating students as owners of their own learning

20. 20 Five Key Strategies … Questioning Engineering effective classroom discussions, questions, and learning tasks Feedback Moving learners forward with feedback Sharing Learning Expectations Clarifying and sharing learning intentions and criteria for success Self Assessment Activating students as the owners of their own learning Peer Assessment Activating students as instructional resources for one another

21. 21 …and one big idea Use evidence about learning to adapt instruction to meet student needs

22. 22 Keeping Learning on Track (KLT) A pilot guides a plane or boat toward its destination by taking constant readings and making careful adjustments in response to wind, currents, weather, etc. A KLT teacher does the same: –Plans a carefully chosen route ahead of time (in essence building the track) –Takes readings along the way –Changes course as conditions dictate

23. 23 Questioning

24. 24 Which fraction is the smallest? Success rate 88% Which fraction is the largest? Success rate 46%; 39% chose (b) [Vinner, PME conference, Lahti, Finland, 1997] Kinds of questions: Israel

25. 25

26. 26 Misconceptions

27. 27 Misconceptions 3a = 24 a + b = 16

28. 28 Molecular structure of water?

29. 29 Feedback

30. 30 Kinds of feedback: Israel 264 low and high ability grade 6 students in 12 classes in 4 schools; analysis of 132 students at top and bottom of each class Same teaching, same aims, same teachers, same classwork Three kinds of feedback: scores, comments, scores+comments [Butler(1988) Br. J. Educ. Psychol., 58 1-14] FeedbackGainAttitude scoresnonetop+ve bottom-ve comments30%all+ve

31. 31 Responses [Butler(1988) Br. J. Educ. Psychol., 58 1-14] FeedbackGainAttitude scoresnonetop+ve bottom-ve comments30%all+ve What do you think happened for the students given both scores and comments: A: Gain: 30%; Attitude: all +ve B: Gain: 30%; Attitude: top +ve, bottom -ve C: Gain: 0%; Attitude: all +ve D: Gain: 0%; Attitude: top +ve, bottom -ve E: Something else

32. 32 Kinds of feedback: Israel (2) 200 grade 5 and 6 Israeli students Divergent thinking tasks 4 matched groups –experimental group 1 (EG1); comments –experimental group 2 (EG2); grades –experimental group 3 (EG3); praise –control group (CG); no feedback Achievement –EG1>(EG2≈EG3≈CG) Ego-involvement –(EG2≈EG3)>(EG1≈CG) [Butler (1987) J. Educ. Psychol. 79 474-482]

33. 33 Effects of feedback Kluger & DeNisi (1996) Review of 3000 research reports Excluding those: –without adequate controls –with poor design –with fewer than 10 participants –where performance was not measured –without details of effect sizes left 131 reports, 607 effect sizes, involving 12652 individuals Average effect size 0.4, but –Effect sizes very variable –40% of effect sizes were negative

34. 34 Feedback Formative assessment requires –data on the actual level of some measurable attribute; –data on the reference level of that attribute; –a mechanism for comparing the two levels and generating information about the ‘gap’ between the two levels; –a mechanism by which the information can be used to alter the gap. Feedback is therefore formative only if the information fed back is actually used in closing the gap.

35. 35 Formative assessment Frequent feedback is not necessarily formative Feedback that causes improvement is not necessarily formative Assessment is formative only if the information fed back to the learner is used by the learner in making improvements To be formative, assessment must include a recipe for future action

36. 36 How do students make sense of this? Attribution (Dweck, 2000) –Personalization (internal v external) –Permanence (stable v unstable) –Essential that students attribute both failures and success to internal, unstable causes. (It’s down to you, and you can do something about it.) Views of ‘ability’ –Fixed (IQ) –Incremental (untapped potential) –Essential that teachers inculcate in their students a view that ‘ability’ is incremental rather than fixed (by working, you’re getting smarter)

37. 37 Sharing learning intentions

38. 38 Sharing criteria with learners 3 teachers each teaching 4 grade 7 science classes in two US schools 14 week experiment 7 two-week projects, scored 2-10 All teaching the same, except: For a part of each week –Two of each teacher’s classes discusses their likes and dislikes about the teaching (control) –The other two classes discusses how their work will be assessed [Frederiksen & White, AERA conference, Chicago, 1997]

39. 39 Sharing criteria with learners 7.47.26.7 6.65.94.6 Reflective assessment Likes and dislikes HighMiddle LowGroup Iowa Test of Basic Skills

40. 40 Peer- and self-assessment

41. 41 Self-assessment: Portugal Teachers studying for MA in Education –Group 1 do regular programme –Group 2 work on self-assessment for 2 terms (20 weeks) –Teachers matched in age, qualifications and experience using the same curriculum scheme for the same amount of time Pupils tested at beginning of year, and again after two terms –Group 1 pupils improve by 7.8 points –Group 2 pupils improve by 15 [Fontana & Fernandez, Br. J. Educ. Psychol. 64: 407-417]

42. 42 Putting it into practice

43. 43 Eliciting evidence of student achievement by engineering effective classroom discussions, questions and learning tasks

44. 44 Practical techniques questioning Key idea: questioning should –cause thinking –provide data that informs teaching Improving teacher questioning –generating questions with colleagues –closed v open –low-order v high-order –appropriate wait-time Getting away from I-R-E –basketball rather than serial table-tennis –‘No hands up’ (except to ask a question) –class polls to review current attitudes towards an issue –‘Hot Seat’ questioning All-student response systems –ABCD cards, Mini white-boards, Exit passes

45. 45 Questioning in math: discussion Look at the following sequence: 3, 7, 11, 15, 19, …. Which is the best rule to describe the sequence? A.n + 4 B.3 + n C.4n - 1 D.4n + 3

46. 46 Questioning in math: diagnosis In which of these right triangles is a 2 + b 2 = c 2 ? A a c b C b c a E c b a B a b c D b a c F c a b

48. 48 Questioning in science: discussion Ice-cubes are added to a glass of water. What happens to the level of the water as the ice-cubes melt? A.The level of the water drops B.The level of the water stays the same C.The level of the water increases D.You need more information to be sure

49. 49 Wilson & Draney, 2004 Questioning in science: diagnosis The ball sitting on the table is not moving. It is not moving because: A. no forces are pushing or pulling on the ball. B. gravity is pulling down, but the table is in the way. C. the table pushes up with the same force that gravity pulls down D. gravity is holding it onto the table. E. there is a force inside the ball keeping it from rolling off the table

50. 50 Dinosaurs extinction Why did dinosaurs become extinct? A) Humans destroyed their habitat B) Humans killed them all for food C) There was a major change in climate

51. 51 Save the ozone layer What can we do to preserve the ozone layer? A.Reduce the amount of carbon dioxide produced by cars and factories B.Reduce the greenhouse effect C.Stop cutting down the rainforests D.Limit the numbers of cars that can be used when the level of ozone is high E.Properly dispose of air-conditioners and fridges

52. 52 Questioning in English: discussion Macbeth: mad or bad?

53. 53 Questioning in English: diagnosis Where is the verb in this sentence? The dog ran across the road ABCD

54. 54 ABCD Questioning in English: diagnosis Where does the subject end and the predicate begin in this sentence? The dog ran across the road.

55. 55 Questioning in English: diagnosis Which of these is a good thesis statement? –The typical TV show has 9 violent incidents –There is a lot of violence on TV –The amount of violence on TV should be reduced –Some programs are more violent than others –Violence is included in programs to boost ratings –Violence on TV is interesting –I don’t like the violence on TV –The essay I am going to write is about violence on TV

56. 56 Questioning in history: discussion In which year did World War II begin? –1919 –1937 –1938 –1939 –1941

57. 57 Questioning in History Why are historians concerned with bias when analyzing sources? A.People can never be trusted to tell the truth B.People deliberately leave out important details C.People are only able to provide meaningful information if they experienced an event firsthand D.People interpret the same event in different ways, according to their experience E.People are unaware of the motivations for their actions F.People get confused about sequences of events

58. 58 Hinge Questions A hinge question is based on the important concept in a lesson that is critical for students to understand before you move on in the lesson. The question should fall about midway during the lesson. Every student must respond to the question within two minutes. You must be able to collect and interpret the responses from all students in 30 seconds

59. 59 Figurative language A.Alliteration B.Hyperbole C.Irony D.Metaphor E.Onomatopoeia F.Personification G.Simile H.None of the above 1.He was a bull in a china shop. 2.May I have a drop of water? 3.This backpack weighs a ton. 4.The sweetly smiling sunshine… 5.He honked his horn at the cyclist. 6.I’ve told you a million times already. 7.The Redcoats are coming! 8.“They in the sea being burnt, they in the burnt ship drown’d.” 9.He was as tall as a house.

60. Triangle shirt waist factory fire, March 25th, 1911

61. 61 Triangle factory fire Which of the following sources is biased? A.Photograph of the event B.New York Times story on Mar 26, 1911 C.Description of the fire in the textbook D.Transcript of talk by Frances Perkins, Sep 30 1964

62. 62 Practical techniques: feedback Key idea: feedback should –cause thinking –provide guidance on how to improve Comment-only grading Focused grading Explicit reference to rubrics Suggestions on how to improve –‘Strategy cards’ ideas for improvement –Not giving complete solutions Re-timing assessment –(eg two-thirds-of-the-way-through-a-unit test)

63. 63 Practical techniques: sharing learning intentions Explaining learning intentions at start of lesson/unit –Learning intentions –Success criteria Intentions/criteria in students’ language Posters of key words to talk about learning –eg describe, explain, evaluate Planning/writing frames Annotated examples of different standards to ‘flesh out’ assessment rubrics (e.g. lab reports) Opportunities for students to design their own tests

64. 64 Practical techniques: peer and self-assessment Students assessing their own/peers’ work –with rubrics –with exemplars –“two stars and a wish” Training students to pose questions/identifying group weaknesses Self-assessment of understanding –Traffic lights –Red/green discs End-of-lesson students’ review

65. 65 Putting it into practice

66. 66 A model for teacher learning Content (what we want teachers to change) –Evidence –Ideas (strategies and techniques) Process (how to go about change) –Choice –Flexibility –Small steps –Accountability –Support

67. 67 Strategies and techniques Distinction between strategies and techniques –Strategies define the territory of AfL (no brainers) –Teachers are responsible for choice of techniques Allows for customization/ caters for local context Creates ownership Shares responsibility Key requirements of techniques –embodiment of deep cognitive/affective principles –relevance –feasibility –acceptability

68. 68 Design and intervention Our design process Teachers’ implementation process cognitive/affective insights synergy/ comprehensiveness set of components set of components synergy/ comprehensiveness cognitive/affective insights

69. 69 Why research hasn’t changed teaching The nature of expertise in teaching Aristotle’s main intellectual virtues –Episteme: knowledge of universal truths –Techne: ability to make things –Phronesis: practical wisdom What works is not the right question –Everything works somewhere –Nothing works everywhere –What’s interesting is “under what conditions” does this work? Teaching is mainly a matter of phronesis, not episteme

70. 70 Knowledge ‘transfer’ After Nonaka & Tageuchi, 1995

71. 71 Supporting Teachers and Schools to Change through Teacher Learning Communities

72. 72 Implementing AfL requires changing teacher habits Teachers “know” most of this already So the problem is not a lack of knowledge It’s a lack of understanding what it means to do AfL That’s why telling teachers what to do doesn’t work Experience alone is not enough—if it were, then the most experienced teachers would be the best teachers—we know that’s not true (Hanushek, 2005) People need to reflect on their experiences in systematic ways that build their accessible knowledge base, learn from mistakes, etc. (Bransford, Brown & Cocking, 1999)

73. 73 That’s what TLCs are for: TLCs contradict teacher isolation TLCs reprofessionalize teaching by valuing teacher expertise TLCs deprivatize teaching so that teachers’ strengths and struggles become known TLCs offer a steady source of support for struggling teachers They grow expertise by providing a regular space, time, and structure for that kind of systematic reflecting on practice They facilitate sharing of untapped expertise residing in individual teachers They build the collective knowledge base in a school

74. 74 The synergy Content: assessment for learning Process: teacher learning communities Components of a model –Initial workshops –Support for TLC leaders –Monthly TLC meetings –Peer observations –‘Drip-feed’ resources Web-site Writings New ideas

75. 75 Summary Raising achievement is important Raising achievement requires improving teacher quality Improving teacher quality requires teacher professional development To be effective, teacher professional development must address –What teachers do in the classroom –How teachers change what they do in the classroom AfL + TLCs –A point of (uniquely?) high leverage –A “Trojan Horse” into wider issues of pedagogy, psychology, and curriculum