1. Chapter 10- Liquids and Solids
Bell Ringer:
List and describe the 3 states of matter in molecular terms.
Bell Ringer:
List and describe the 3 states of matter in molecular terms.

2. Studying Solids, Liquids and Gases
The study of solids, liquids, and gases require an understanding of:
The kinetic molecular theory
The arrangement of atoms within a molecule.
The intermolecular forces of attraction between particles.

4. Arrangement of Atoms Within Molecules
Important Factors to Consider:
Electronegativity differences
Molecular Symmetry

5. Intermolecular Forces- Dipole-Dipole Attraction
When the positive end of one polar molecule is attracted to the negative end of another polar molecule.

6. Intermolecular Forces- Hydrogen Bonding
When the positive hydrogen side of one polar molecule is attracted to the negative end of another molecule.

7. Intermolecular Forces- London Dispersion
Instantaneous Dipoles that are created by constantly moving electrons.

8. Comparisons of the Three States of Matter

9. Three States of Matter Shape
Gases have no shape because of little attractive forces and independent movement. Liquids take the shape of their container but do not expand readily because of attractive forces. Solid molecules have definite shape and are held in fixed position.

10. States of Matter Density
Section 4 Changes of State
States of Matter Density
Density is mass per unit volume and indicates the closeness of particles in a sample of matter.
Gas Liquid Solid
Low High High

11. Three States of Matter Particle Energy
Differences in attractive forces slow down particle movement.
Gases- high kinetic energy because of low attraction between particles.
Liquids- moderate kinetic energy and attraction
Solids- low kinetic energy and high attractive forces.

12. EQ: What does it mean for something to have heat, or be hot?
Temperature is related to the average kinetic energy of the particles in a substance.
KE = mv2 2

13. 2. SI unit for temp. is the Kelvin
a. K = C (10C = 283K)
b. C = K – 273 (10K = -263C)
3. Thermal Energy – the total of all the kinetic and potential energy of all the particles in a substance.

14. Physical Standard for Temperature “Kelvin”
Triple Point of Water
The temperature and pressure at which water, water vapor, and ice can coexist in equilibrium.
Temperature = 0.01C
Pressure = 4.58 mm Hg
The temperature and pressure at which water, water vapor, and ice can coexist in equilibrium.
Temperature = 0.01C
Pressure = 4.58 mm Hg
Physical Standard for Temperature
Triple Point of Water

15. Absolute Zero & the Kelvin Scale
The Kelvin scale is setup so that its zero point is the coldest possible temperature--absolute zero, at which point a substance would have zero internal energy. This is °C, or °F.
Absolute zero can never be reached, but there is no limit to how close we can get to it. Scientists have cooled substances to within 10-5 kelvins of absolute zero. How do we know how cold absolute zero is, if nothing has ever been at that temperature? The answer is by graphing Pressure vs. Temperature for a variety of gases and extrapolating. P
gas A
A gas exerts no pressure when at absolute zero.
gas B
gas C
T (°C) °C
0 °C

16. 4. Thermal energy relationships
a. As temperature increases, so does thermal energy (because the kinetic energy of the particles increased).
b. Even if the temperature doesn’t change, the thermal energy in a more massive substance is higher (because it is a total measure of energy).

17. Fahrenheit Formula
On the Fahrenheit scale, there are 180°F between the freezing and boiling points and on the Celsius scale, there are 100°C.
180°F = 9°F = 1.8°F
100°C 5°C 1°C
In the formula for the Fahrenheit temperature, adding 32 adjusts the zero point of water from 0°C to 32°F.
TF = 9/5 TC  or
TF = 1.8 TC 

18. Celsius Formula TC is obtained by rearranging the equation for TF.
TF = TC
Subtract 32 from both sides.
TF = 1.8TC ( )
TF = 1.8TC
Divide by 1.8 = °F = TC
TF = TC
1.8

19. a. The flow of thermal energy from one object to another.
Cup gets cooler while hand gets warmer
5. Heat
a. The flow of thermal energy from one object to another.
b. Heat always flows from warmer to cooler objects.
Ice gets warmer while hand gets cooler

20. Thermal Equilibrium
Two bodies are said to be at thermal equilibrium if they are at the same temperature. This means there is no net exchange of thermal energy between the two bodies. The top pair of objects are in contact, but since they are at different temps, they are not in thermal equilibrium, and energy is flowing from the hot side to the cold side.
hot
cold
heat
26 °C
26 °C
No net heat flow
The two purple objects are at the same temp and, therefore are in thermal equilibrium. There is no net flow of heat energy here.

21. Three States of Matter Compressibility
Compressibility- the ability to move particles closer together.
Gases- Highly compressible
Liquids- Slightly compressible
Solids- Non-compressible

22. Three States of Matter Volume

23. State of Matter Attractive Forces Between Particles
Kinetic energy between solids and liquids is low allowing for dipole-dipole attraction, London dispersion or a crystalline lattice to occur. Attractive forces among gases are almost non-existent.

24. Three States of Matter Diffusion
Diffusion- the spontaneous mixing of the particles of two substances caused by their random motion.
Gases Liquids Solids
Quick Slow None

25. States of Matter Fluidity
A fluid is a substance that’s atoms or molecules are free to move past each other and therefore can take the shape of the container.
Gases Liquids Solids
Fluid Fluid Not Fluid

26. Three States of Matter Orderliness of Particles
Gases Liquids Solids
Random Some Order Crystalline Lattice

27. Change of State Terms

28. Examples of Change in State

29. Liquid Terms Condensation
Term that refers to a gas changing to a liquid.

30. Liquid Terms Evaporation
Term that refers to the changing of a liquid into a gas.

31. Liquid Terms Melting/Freezing
Melting- the change of a solid into a liquid
Freezing- the change of a liquid to a solid

32. Liquid Terms Viscosity
Resistance to flow (molecules with large intermolecular forces).

33. Liquid Terms Volatile VOLATILE LIQUID
Liquids that evaporate readily and have very weak forces of attraction between particles.

34. Phase changes by Name Sublimation solid to gas
Vaporization liquid to a gas
Condensation gas to a liquid
Melting solid to liquid
Deposition gas to solid

35. Characteristics of Liquids Surface Tension
The force that tends to pull adjacent parts of a liquid’s surface together thereby decreasing surface area to smallest possible size. It causes liquid droplets to take a spherical shape.

36. Characteristics of Liquids Capillary Action
The attraction of the surface of a liquid to the surface of a solid.

37. Bell Ringer:
What is the term for the physical state change for each of the following
Solid to a gas- Liquid to a gas-
Gas to a solid-
Gas to a liquid-
Liquid to a solid-
Sublimation
Vaporization
Condensation
Deposition
Melting
Sublimation solid to gas
Vaporization liquid to a gas
Condensation gas to a liquid
Deposition gas to solid
Melting solid to liquid

38. Solid Terms Hygroscopic/Deliquescent
Hygroscopic- a substance that will capture water molecules from the air and hold them.
Deliquescent- a substance that is so hygroscopic that they take up enough water molecules from the air to dissolve and form a liquid.

39. Solid Terms Hydrated Ions
Ions that are chemically bonded to the water molecule.

40. Solid Terms Anhydrous Compound
A compound in which the water of hydration has been removed.

41. Solid Terms Sublimation
The change of state from a solid directly to a gas.

42. Solid Terms Deposition
The change of state from a gas directly to a solid. The formation of frost is a popular example.

43. Types of Solids Amorphous Solids
One in which the particle arrangement is random.
Examples: glass, plastic

44. Types of Solids Crystalline Solids
Consists of crystals with an orderly geometric repeating pattern. They have a highly regular arrangement of their components [table salt (NaCl), pyrite (FeS2)].

47. Ionic Crystals Electrons Transferred

48. Molecular Crystals Electrons are Shared
Ammonium persulfate crystals are used as an alternative to traditional ferric chloride solutions for copper etching.

49. Covalent Network- Diamond Each atom is covalently bonded to the nearest atoms

50. Metallic Bonding Electron sea formed by mobile valence electrons

51. Hydrogen Bonding Ice Crystals

52. Dynamic Equilibrium
Dynamic Equilibrium deals with the conditions under which liquid and vapor can coexist. When a system is in equilibrium, two opposing physical changes (ie. Evaporation /condensation will
occur at equal rates

53. Liquid-Vapor Equilibrium System

54. Equilibrium Vapor Pressure
The pressure exerted by a vapor that is in equilibrium with its corresponding liquid at a given temperature

55. The graph that shows the pressure and temperature conditions under which the phases of a substance exist is called a Phase Diagram
The line from the triple point to the critical point to the right is the vapor-liquid equilibrium line.

56. Triple Point
Indicates the temperature and pressure conditions at which the solid, liquid and vapor of the substance can coexist at equilibrium.

57. Critical Temperature
The temperature above which the substance cannot exist in the liquid state.

58. Critical Pressure
Lowest pressure at which the substance can exist as a liquid at the critical temperature

59. Critical Point
Indicates the critical temperature and pressure.

60. Le Chatelier’s Principle
When a system at equilibrium is disturbed by the application of a stress, it attains a new equilibrium position that minimizes the stress.

61. Based on the graph, what phases of water are present for any corresponding pressure reading on:
On curve AB?
On curve AD?
On curve AC?
At point A?

62. Given a sample of water on curve AC, what effect would each of the following changes have on that sample?
Increasing temperature at constant pressure.
Increasing pressure at constant temperature.
Decreasing temperature at constant pressure.
Decreasing pressure at constant temperature.

63. Given a sample of water on curve AD, what effect would each of the following changes have on that sample?
Increasing temperature at constant pressure.
Increasing pressure at constant temperature.
Decreasing temperature at constant pressure.
Decreasing pressure at constant temperature.

64. Molar Heat of Fusion Molar Heat of Vaporization
Molar Heat of Fusion- the amount of heat energy required to melt one mole of a solid at its melting point.
Molar Heat of Vaporization- the amount of heat energy needed to vaporize one mole of a liquid at its boiling point.

65. Heat of Fusion/Heat of Vaporization

66. Latent Heat & Phase Change
A transfer of heat energy from one substance to another does not always result in a temperature change.
For instance, ice water on a hot summer day will remain 0˚ C until all of the ice has melted before the temperature begins to rise
i.e. energy is lost due to phase change

67. Latent Heat & Phase Change
The energy needed to change the phase of a given pure substance is called Latent heat.
It is dependant on the nature of the substance and the phase change.
solid  liquid liquid  gas
333,000J/Kg 2,263,300J/Kg
Q = mL
Q = heat (J)
m = mass (Kg)
L = latent heat (J/Kg)

68. Latent Heat & Phase Change
Latent heat of Fusion: melting or freezing
Q = mLf
Latent heat of Vaporization: boiling or condensation
Q = mLv
Latent heat is an experimental value
Dependent on inter & intermolecular forces

69. Latent Heat of Water Pause for a Cause:
How much heat must be added to a 25g ice cube at 0ºC to change it to water at 0ºC if the latent heat of fusion for water is
3.33 X 10-5J/Kg?
83,250
Q = mLf
Q = 25g * 1Kg * 3.33 X 105J
1000g * Kg
= 8.3 X 103J

70. Land heats up and cools down faster than water
Specific Heat
a. Some things heat up or cool down faster than others.
Land heats up and cools down faster than water

71. b. Specific heat is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of a material by one degree (C or K).
1) C water = 4184 J / kg C
2) C sand = 664 J / kg C
This is why land heats up quickly during the day and cools quickly at night and why water takes longer.

72. Why does water have such a high specific heat?
water metal
Water molecules form strong bonds with each other; therefore it takes more heat energy to break them. Metals have weak bonds and do not need as much energy to break them.

73. How to calculate changes in thermal energy
Q = mCpΔT
Q = m x T x Cp
Q = change in thermal energy
m = mass of substance
T = change in temperature (Tf – Ti)
Cp = specific heat of substance
Q = mC(Tf

74. c. A calorimeter is used to help measure the specific heat of a substance.
First, mass and temperature of water are measured
Knowing its Q value, its mass, and its T, its Cp can be calculated
This gives the heat lost by the substance
T is measured for water to help get its heat gain
Then heated sample is put inside and heat flows into water

75. Q = mCpΔT Cp = __Q__ mΔT Pause for a Cause:
Determine the specific heat of water if
8.8 x 105 Joules are lost when 3.00 Kg of water is cooled from 80.0C to 10.0C.
Determine the specific heat of water f 8.8 x 105 Joules are lost when 3 Kg of water is cooled from 80.0C to 10.0C The specific heat of liquid water is 4200J/Kg ºC,
Q = mCpΔT
Cp = __Q__
mΔT
Answer: 4190J
Kg ºC

76. Q = mCpΔT Cp = __Q__ mΔT Pause for a Cause:
A metal bolt with a mass of 8.50 x kg and a temperature of 85.0 ˚C is placed in a container of water. The mass of the water is kg, and its temperature is 25.0˚C. What is the specific heat capacity of the bolt if the final temperature of the bolt and water is 28.4˚C? (c = 4186 J/kg*˚C)
Water
mw= kg
Ti = 25.0 x ˚C
Tf = 28.4˚C
Cp = 4186 J/kg*˚C
Q = mCpΔT
Q = 0.15Kg * 4186 J (28.4 ˚C – 25 ˚C)
Kg ˚C
= J
Cp = __Q__
mΔT
Bolt
mb= 8.50 x kg
Ti = 85.0 x ˚C
Tf = 28.4˚C
Cp = ?
= 443 J
Kg ˚C
Cp = ______ J__________
8.5x10-2 Kg (28.4 ˚C – 85.0 ˚C)

77. Thermal Expansion of Solids and Liquids
Thermal expansion of an object is a consequence of the change in the average separation between its atoms or molecules due to the increase of kinetic energy (heat).
When

78. Determining Thermal Expansion
Δl = α liΔt
Δl = (lf – li) Final length - initial length α = coefficient of thermal expansion Li = initial length Δt = (tf – ti) Final temp - initial temp

79. Coefficient of Expansion
Thermal expansion depends on the material being heated or cooled.
The coefficient of thermal expansion is determined experimentally.

81. Pause for a Cause 1.08 x 10-6 ˚C-1 α = (lf – li) li(tf – ti)
A steel railroad track has a length of m when the temperature is 0˚C. Determine the coefficient of thermal expansion for steel if the tracks expand to m after a hot day when the temperature is 40.0 ˚C.
α = (lf – li)
li(tf – ti)
α = (30.013m – m)=
30.000m(40.0˚C– 0˚C)
1.08 x 10-6 ˚C-1

82. Pause for a Cause li = _Δl_ α Δt li = ˚C m ˚C
A copper bar changes in length by 1.1 meters with a 150 degree Celsius change in temperature. What is the bar’s original length?
Δl = α liΔt
li = _______1.1m_____ = 431.4m
(17.0E-6 ˚C-1)(150˚C)
li = _Δl_
α Δt
li = ˚C m ˚C