1. Chapter 3
Victims and Victimization

2. Problems of Crime Victims
Victimization costs include: damaged property, pain and suffering, and the involvement of police and other agencies of the justice system

3. Problems of Crime Victims
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4. Problems of Crime Victims
Economic Loss:
Problems of Crime Victims
Violent crime by juveniles costs $158 billion per year
Total economic costs of crime amounts to $450 billion annually
The costs of crime for each U.S. citizen is $1,800 annually
Victims suffer long term losses in earnings and occupational attainment
Research suggests crime victims during adolescence earn about $82,000 less than nonvictims

5. Problems of Crime Victims
System Abuse
Callous handling of victims by police
Holding of personal property for evidence
Rape victims report feeling “re-raped”
Economic hardships due to trials

6. Problems of Crime Victims
Long Term Stress
Posttraumatic stress disorders (PTSD)
Lowering of self-esteem
Increased risk of suicide
Eating disorders
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorders
Victimization lead to some people feeling timid and cautious
Fear of a repeat attack
Suffer psychological stress for longer periods of time

7. Problems of Crime Victims
Antisocial Behavior
Victims are more likely to commit crimes themselves
Being abused increases the odds of one being arrested (cycle of violence)
Both males and females are affected by the cycle of violence

8. The Nature of Victimization
Crime rates have been declining
The violent victimization rate decreased 54 percent
The property crime victimization rate decreased 50 percent

9. Figure 3.1 Declining Crime Rates, 1973-2003

10. Figure 3.2 Violent Crime Victimization Rates, 1973-2003

11. Figure 3.3 Property Crime Victimization Rates, 1973-2003

12. The Nature of Victimization
The social ecology of victimization
Violent crimes are more likely to occur in open public areas during daytime or early evening hours
Almost two-thirds of more serious crimes such as rape occur after 6 P.M.
Inner-city inhabitants have a greater chance of being victimized than suburbanites

13. The Nature of Victimization
The Victim’s Household
Larger, African American, Western, and urban homes are the most vulnerable to crime
Recent declines in victimization may be explained by smaller households in less populated areas due to movement from urban areas

14. The Nature of Victimization
Victim Characteristics
Gender:
Males are more likely to be victims of violent crime than females, except for rape and sexual assault
Females are more likely to be victimized by someone they know, whereas males are more likely to be victimized by strangers
Age:
Young people are more at risk of victimization than older people
People over 65 only account for 1 percent of violent victimizations (most being frauds and scams)

15. Figure 3.4 Violent Crime Rates by Age of Victim

16. The Nature of Victimization
Social Status
Poor people are more likely to experience violent and property crime
The wealthy are more likely to be targets of personal theft crimes

17. The Nature of Victimization
Marital Status
Never-married people are more likely to be victimized than married people
Widows and widowers have the lowest victimization rate

18. CNN Clip - Anti-Immigrant House Bombing

19. The Nature of Victimization
Race and Ethnicity
African Americans more likely to be victims of violent crime than European Americans
Minorities experience income inequality in greater number than European Americans

20. Figure 3.5 Violent Crime Rates by Race of Victim

21. The Nature of Victimization
Repeat Victimization
Individuals who have been a crime victim have a significantly higher chance of future victimization
Characteristics which increase potential for victimization
Target vulnerability
Target gratifiability
Target antagonism

22. The Nature of Victimization
The Victims and Their Criminals
Males are more likely to be violently victimized by a stranger
Females are more likely to be victimized by a friend or intimate
Crime is intraracial: Blacks victimize Blacks and Whites victimize Whites
Substance abuse is involved in about one-third of violent crime incidents
Women are more likely to be both robbed and raped by known acquaintances

23. Theories of Victimization
Victim Precipitation Theory – some people may actually initiate the confrontation that leads to their injury or death.
Active precipitation – victim acts provocatively (Menachem Amir 1971)
Passive precipitation – occurs when victim exhibits some personal characteristics that unknowingly either threatens or encourages the attacker.

24. Theories of Victimization
Lifestyle Theory – certain lifestyles increase exposure to criminal offenders.
Being in a public place late at night
Living in an urban area
High-risk lifestyles (i.e. drinking, drug using)
Criminal lifestyle such as carrying weapons and belonging to gangs

25. Theories of Victimization
Deviant Place Theory
Victim prone to victimization because one resides in a socially disorganized high-crime area
The more often victims visit dangerous places, the more likely they will be exposed to crime and violence
Deviant places include: poor densely populated areas, highly transient neighborhoods and commercial areas with residential property in close proximity
William Julius Wilson suggests White residents flee high-crime areas, leaving racial minorities behind to suffer high victimization rates

26. Theories of Victimization
Routine Activity Theory
Victimization results from the interaction of everyday factors
Availability of suitable targets
Absence of capable guardians
Presence of motivated offenders
People who live in “hot spots” elevate their chances of victimization
Some criminologists suggest moral guardianship might cause some people to refrain from crime if they are bonded with conventional attitudes (peer rejection)
Ronald Clarke contends the relationship among opportunity, routine activities, and environmental factors increases victimization potential

27. Figure 3.6 Routine Activities Theory

28. Figure 3.7 The Opportunity Structure of Crime

29. Caring for the Victim
Victimization surveys indicate almost every American will become a victim of a common law crime
Helping the victim cope is the responsibility of all of society

30. Caring for the Victim
The Government’s Response
Task Force on Victim’s of Crime created in 1982 to provide recommendations for victim assistance
In 1984 The Comprehensive Crime Control Act and the Victims of Crime Act authorized federal funding for state victim compensation

31. Caring for the Victim
Victim Service Programs
An estimated 2,000 victim-witness assistance programs have been developed
Victim compensation: to pay for damages associated with crime ($100 to $15,000)
Court services: to help prepare victims and witnesses for court testimony
Public education: to familiarize the general public with primary prevention programs
Crisis intervention: Networks of social service agencies to provide emergency and long term assistance
Victim-offender reconciliation programs: use of mediators for face-to-face encounters between victims and perpetrators
Victim impact statements: allows victims the opportunity to describe their ordeal

32. Caring for the Victim
Victims’ Rights
Legal scholars have suggested crime victims have legal rights and society is obliged to ensure basic rights for law-abiding citizens
Thirty-three states have added victim’s rights amendments to their constitutions
A national Constitutional Amendment has been debated but has not yet passed Congress
In 2004, the Senate passed S.2329 a bill to provide rights to federal victims of crime, which does not change the Constitution

33. Caring for the Victim
Victim Advocacy
Advocates provide assistance to crime victims by interacting with police, courts, and legal aid
Advocates may assist in the writing of victim statements for various legal proceedings such as sentencing and probation/parole hearings.
Advocates may interact with media trying to ensure reporting is accurate and that privacy is not violated

34. Caring for the Victim
Self-Protection
Target hardening involves making one’s home and business crime proof
Use of fences, guards, surveillance cameras, window bars, warning signs, and dogs
Gary Kleck suggests armed victims kill between 1,500 and 2,800 potential felons each year

35. Caring for the Victim
Community Organization
Neighborhood watch programs
Community newsletters
Home security surveys
Lighting projects