1. Improving lexical richness by text analysis software Arthur McNeill The Chinese University of Hong Kong

2. What is lexical richness? Quality of vocabulary content of learner output Difficult to define Different approaches to defining LR are provoking heated debate among scholars

3. Does lexical richness matter? Judges are influenced by lexical content, even when they are not asked to focus on vocabulary. High correlations between lexical richness and other measures of second language proficiency.

4. Issues in LR debate Assumptions about “lexical coverage” The most frequent 2000 words of English account for about 80% of most texts, so low L2 vocabulary targets were set for learners

5. Vocabulary size and text coverage

6. Impact of first 2000 words plus AWL (570 ‘academic’ words)

7. Indicators of lexical richness amount of “low frequency” words in the text type/token ratio range of vocabulary command of different semantic fields

8. What vocabulary skills are involved? avoiding repetition of words (e.g. by lexical and pronominal substitution) knowing how to combine words (e.g. collocation; compounding)

9. Examples from Hong Kong sample Repetition of key words (need for lexical substitution The under-use of superordination The need for lexical enrichment (adjectives and adverbs)

10. I have a rubber, an old, small rubber. Although it is so small that I can not use it anymore, I still keep it carefully in my drawer as it is so important for me. That is a long, long time that I have my rubber. Four years ago, when I was still an eight-years-old child, my parents bought me a rubber as my birthday present. I put it into my pencil-box and brought it to school everyday. We had an interesting game in the past. We used our rubber to play with in the game. We pushed our rubber one by one and tried not to be pushed out at the desk by another rubber. We pushed and pulled our rubbers, soon our rubbers became older and smaller one day than one day.

11. Calculating the “lexical frequency profile” of a student’s text First 1000 words (1K) Second 1000 words (2K) Academic words (AWL) Less frequent words

12. Calculating the “lexical frequency profile” of a student’s text First 1000 words (1K) Second 1000 words (2K) Academic words (AWL) Less frequent words THE CRITICAL AREA!

17. I have a rubber, an old, small rubber. Although it is so small that I can not use it anymore, I still keep it carefully in my drawer as it is so important for me. That is a long, long time that I have my rubber. Four years ago, when I was still an eight-years- old child, my parents bought me a rubber as my birthday present. I put it into my pencil-box and brought it to school everyday. We had an interesting game in the past. We used our rubber to play with in the game. We pushed our rubber one by one and tried not to be pushed out at the desk by another rubber. We pushed and pulled our rubbers, soon our rubbers became older and smaller one day than one day.

19. Substitutes for “rubber” It (pronoun) One (pronoun) Eraser (synonym) Item of stationery (definition) Device? (superordinate) Tool? (superordinate) Thing? (colloquial superordinate)

20. I have a rubber, an old, small one. Although it is so small that I can not use it anymore, I still keep it carefully in my drawer as it is so important for me. That is a long, long time that I have my favourite chosen possession. Four years ago, when I was still an eight-years-old child, my parents bought it for me as my birthday present. I put it into my pencil-box and brought it to school everyday. We had an interesting game in the past. We used our eraser to play with in the game. We pushed our items of stationery one by one and tried not to be pushed out at the desk by another opponent. We pushed and pulled our weapons, soon our rubbers became older and smaller one day than one day.

23. What vocabulary skills help learners with lexical richness? Synonymy Giving definitions Knowing the name of the superordinate Knowing the name of the member (e.g. “item”, “piece”, “article”, etc.) Using metaphor (e.g. using known words in a metaphorical sense)

24. Text written by a local HK 16-year old under exam conditions Many students strive for academic exellency, but what is the motivation behind their hardwork? In this essay, I am going to explore the different aspects of learning, and analyse the pros and cons of each motivating factor. The hunger for knowledge and wisdom can motivate students to learn. They hope to widen their horizons through reading, watching educational programs, travelling and other ways. To them, the world is a fascinating place, full of wonders and mysteries to unravel. Their love of learning motivates them to seek knowledge in all areas, from science and mathematics to arts.

27. Superordination Musical instrument pianotrumpetflute

28. Using superordinate terms ? rulerpencilrubber

29. Using superordinate terms ? hammerscrewdriverpliers

30. FLAT LIVING ROOM BEDROOMSKITCHEN fridgecooker saucepan frying pan BATHROOM

31. Vehicles cartrainbicycle handlebarwheel tyre spoke saddle

32. Need for lexical enrichment When we went up to the classroom, I was sweating. Miss Ip neared my table and put the exam paper in front of me. I closed my eyes and opened it a fraction of an inch. There, on top of the paper, was a 77. My heart sank. Then my teacher put the other exam paper in front of me. I took it and saw an 88 in the mark box.

33. Lexical expansion When we went up to the (adj.) classroom, I was sweating (adv.). Miss Ip neared my table (adv.) and (adv.) put the (adj.) exam paper in front of me. I (adv.) closed my eyes and (adv.) opened it a fraction of an inch. There, on top of the (adj.) paper, was a 77. My heart sank. Then my (adj.) teacher put the other exam paper in front of me. I (adv.) took it and saw an 88 in the mark box.

34. Teaching implications Encourage self-management of vocabulary learning by students Websites which offer frequency-based words in mini-contexts can provide some short-cuts to incidental (random) vocabulary growth. Process writing can develop awareness of lexical richness.

35. Useful websites Tom Cobb (University of Quebec) www.lextutor.ca Paul Nation (Victoria University, Wellington www.vuw.ac.nz/ Paul Meara (University of Wales Swansea) www.swan.ac.uk/calsresearch Arthur McNeill (Chinese University of HK) www.cuhk.edu.hk/ENG5600