1. The origins of agri cultura, cultivation of the fields Agriculture originated in various semi-tropical environments 10,000 years ago. Crop domestication is human-induced plant adaptation Centers of crop origin have wild relatives of the crop. Wheat evolved from three wild grass species Hybridization and polyploid formation are important driving forces in crop evolution In each center of origin numerous crops were domesticated Genetic diversity can be measured at the molecular level Genetic diversity was lost as a result of domestication Loss of genetic diversity may allow disease epidemics

2. Where, how and why did agriculture begin? Agriculture began in multiple places more or less simultaneously some 8000 to 10000 years ago. These are tropical or sub-tropical areas of mid-elevation (3000 ft) with varied topographies and a climate that has a distinct wet and dry season (Mediterranean, Savanna or Monsoon). Different species with similar uses (cereal, legume, roots/tubers. fruit, fiber crop, spices, stimulants) were domesticated in each region. It is likely that climate change induced hunter-gatherers to manage their food sources more intensely and that primitive tools (sickles) permitted greater food production, setting in motion the first rise in the human population.

3. Crop domestication is a selection process for the adaptation of crops to the human environment considering that humans are cultivators and consumers When humans harvest and re-plant they affect the normal evolution of plants, selecting for certain properties knowingly (seed color and size) or unknowingly (germination time, rachis strength). Domesticated plants spread from their site of domestication to the region and then farther out, displacing other, similar plants. In wild individuals of the same species there is much variability between individual plants many properties such as plant height,seed size, disease resistance,stress tolerance, yield per plant, etc. This variability, which has a genetic basis, is lost as the emerging “crop” gradually replaces the wild plants. Continuous back-crossing makes this a slow process. Reproductive isolation accelerates it. Barley: mutant with non-brittle rachis (left) and wt (right)

4. Plant characteristics that were selected for during domestication. Reduction/loss of the means of seed dispersal Brittle rachis Shattering of pods Reduction/loss of dormancy (rapid germination after sowing) More compact growth habit (no vines) Shorter time to flowering and maturity Gigantism (big seeds, fruits) Photoperiod insensitivity Reduction/loss of toxic compounds

5. Where did our crops originate? In 1882, Alphonse de Candolle, a French systematic botanist (taxonomist) proposed that the crops of the world originated in 3 centers: Mesoamerica, the Fertile Crescent of the Middle East, and South East Asia. He based his proposal on the presence of wild relatives of the major crops (rice, wheat, beans) that look like the crops and on archeological evidence.

6. Evidence for the origins of agriculture comes from archaeological excavations and botanical observations on the distribution of the relatives of our domesticated crops Nikolai Vavilov, a Russian geneticist, was a tireless plant prospector and collector. He postulated that the region of greatest diversity of the wild relatives of a crop plant is also its center of origin. He proposed 8 “centers” of origin. Further research by Jack Harlan in the USA modified this to 3 real centers and 3 “non-centers”. Vavilov’s map Harlan’s map

7. The origin of bread wheat. The wild relatives of bread wheat, Triticum aestivum, still grow in the Middle East The Fertile Crescent Mesopotamia

8. The Fertile Crescent Einkorn AegilopsGoat grass

9. When an A gamete from the AA plant fuses with a B gamete from the BB plant, this fusion product normally produces a sterile AB plant, because the chromosomes cannot pair during meiosis when the AB plant would produce gametes. However, if early on there is a duplication of the chromosomes to AABB, then this plant can form AB gametes and a new species has arisen. = Chromosome doubling

10. The domestication of wheat involved a migration out of the area of origin. The hybridization of Einkorn (AA) and Aegilops (BB) occurred in the Fertile Crescent. The second hybridization with Triticum tauschii (DD) occurred south of the Caspian Sea. Each time there had to be a doubling of the chromosome number. Varieties of wheat and barley that were found at archeological sites with evidence that they were exploited as food sources in the Near East. Doubling of the chromosome number (polyploidization) is a rare event. Because wheat can continue to grow vegetatively with tillers (side shoots) for several years, this makes it more likely that such an event will occur. Then that particular shoot will have seeds. Wheat with tillers

11. How do we know that wheat evolved this way? Cytogenetics is the study of chromosomes: their structure (what they look like after staining) and where certain genes are located (gene mapping). This branch of science came before genome sequencing Einkorn, A genome Aegilops speltoides B genome

12. The spread of agriculture and domesticated wheat eastward in the Mediterranean and then the rest of Europe and westward in Asia (to India) occurred at a rate of about 500 km per 1000 years. 8 founder crops were associated with the emergence of agriculture in the Fertile Crescent 8000 years ago. Crops traveled with their associated weeds and the weeds became crops as they reached other climatic zones where they were better adapted (rye, for example). The entire agricultural system moved (wheat + other crops + domesticated animals)

13. A number of plants (corn, beans, peppers) were domesticated in the cool tropical highlands of Mexico. Many species of teosinte - the progenitor of modern corn - grow wild in Mexico, often in close proximity to corn fields (see below). Teosinte is a wild grass with nutritious seeds but seeds that readily disperse (brittle rachis) and are encased in a hard fruit (casing). Ear of teosinte

14. The origin of corn (Zea mays) Modern maize has genes from two different species of teosinte (parviglumis and mexicana) Corn evolved from small forms ( 13 cm, >8 rows) by A.D. 1500

15. All cultures domesticated cereals and legumes, which are agriculturally and nutritionally complementary Latin America: Corn and common bean China: Rice and soybean Middle East: Wheat and lentil Africa: Sorghum, rice, cowpea and groundnut Human Nutrition: Legumes, except soybeans are low in the sulfur amino acids cysteine and methionine. Cereals are low in lysine and tryptophan. Eaten together the two provide a complete protein Agronomy: Legumes fix nitrogen in a symbiosis with bacteria that Live in root nodules. Cereals respond to nitrogen fertilization with improved yields

16. Land races Relative reproductive isolation and differing conditions of soil, nutrients, diseases, insects, water, day length etc created numerous landraces of our crops. However, subsistence farmers are always trading seeds, so land races are not static entities, but their genetic make-up changes. All land races of one species have the same genes (unless deletions occurred), but many different alleles Corn from different fields

17. An example of 700 collection sites of wheat land races to test them for drought and salt tolerance. All these land races originally came from the Fertile Crescent as wheat spread out East and West, some 8000 years ago. Collecting a peanut landrace In Amazonia Harvesting a wheat land race In Pakistan.

18. Wild speciesEarly domesticates Modern varieties Figure 1 Loss of genetic diversity as a result of domestication and selection

19. Domestication resulted in the loss of biodiversity. Subsequently plant breeding reduced it even more. 1.An infinite number of different individuals. Domestication occurred in only a small portion of the entire area where the wild relatives were found. 2. 1000 to 10000 landraces grown by farmers as the crop spread 3. 10 to 50 varieties produced by plant breeders. Although plant breeders constantly produce new varieties, the new ones replace the old ones.

20. The loss of alleles in a genetic bottleneck caused by using a small sample to proceed to the next generation. During crop domestication there were 2 types of sample reductions: the crop was domesticated starting with wild relatives in a restricted area and, each year a sample that may not have contained all alleles was saved for planting.

21. Molecular genetic diversity of wild relatives and cultivated crops using chloroplast DNA sequences.

22. In the course of crop evolution there occurred two major bottlenecks in the loss of biodiversity: between the wild progenitors and the landraces and again between the landraces and the modern cultivars The example below if for the common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris).. There are 12000 cultivated varieties (landraces) of common bean!

23. Genetic uniformity (lack or diversity) has major advantages, but also drawbacks. An epidemic of late leaf blight of (Phytophtora infestans) of potato wiped out potato crops in Europe in 1845-1846 contributing to the Irish famine and mi- gration to the US. An epidemic of southern corn leaf blight (Bipolaris maydis) swept through the Southern US in 1970, decreasing the national harvest by 15 %. A new race (variant) called race T infected all corn varieties carrying a particular gene. This gene was present in a very high % of all hybrid corn varieties sold to farmers.

24. Hybridization and polyploidization of weeds produced crops! Rapeseed/canola

25. Just a few mutations produced these different crops from one ancestor of Brassica oleracea.