1. Enzymes
The purpose of an enzyme in a cell is to allow the cell to carry out chemical reactions very quickly

2. What are enzymes? Enzymes are made from amino acids They are proteins.
An enzyme acts as a very efficient catalyst for a specific chemical reaction.
The enzyme speeds that reaction up tremendously.

3. How are enzymes made?
An enzyme is made by stringing together between 100 and 1,000 amino acids in a very specific and unique order.
The chain of amino acids then folds into a unique shape.
That shape allows the enzyme to carry out specific chemical reactions

4. Enzymes are biological catalysts
How enzymes work
Enzymes are biological catalysts

5. Enzyme Action:
An enzyme binds a substrate in a region called the active site
Only certain substrates can fit the active site
Enzyme-substrate complex forms
Substrate reacts to form product
Product is released

7. Enzyme action

8. Enzyme Action
E S ES complex E P P S S P

9. Enzyme reactions are reversible
Enzyme reactions are reversible. Just like a key can open and lock a door, an enzyme can cause a reaction to proceed in either direction.
Hence Enzymes can be anabolic or catabolic.

10. 4 steps There are four steps in the process of an enzyme working.
An enzyme and a substrate are in the same area.
The enzyme grabs onto the substrate with a special area called the active site
3. A process called catalysis happens.
4. The enzyme lets go. The substrate is now called the product.

11. Induced Fit Model Enzyme structure flexible, not rigid
Enzyme and active site adjust shape to bind substrate
Increases range of substrate specificity
Shape changes also improve catalysis during reaction

12. Enzyme Action: Induced Fit Model
E S ES complex E P P S S S P

13. Learning Check The active site is (1) the enzyme
(2) a section of the enzyme
(3) the substrate
B. In the induced fit model, the shape of the enzyme when substrate binds
(1) Stays the same
(2) adapts to the shape of the substrate

14. Can we stop them?
There are many factors that can regulate enzyme activity, including
temperature,
activators,
pH levels,
inhibitors.

15. Temperature Proteins change shape as temperatures change.
Enzyme activity is based on its shape
Temperature changes means the enzyme won't work.

16. Temperature Little activity at low temperature
Rate increases with temperature
Most active at optimum temperatures (usually 37°C in humans)
Activity lost with denaturation at high temperatures

17. Temperature Affects Enzyme Action
Optimum temperature
Reaction
Rate
Low High
Temperature

18. pH Levels
In the same way temperature changes the shape of proteins, the acidity or pH of the environment does the same thing.
An increased acidity near an enzyme can cause its shape to change.
The enzyme could unravel and become totally ineffective.

19. Factors Affecting Enzyme Action: pH
Maximum activity at optimum pH
Narrow range of activity
Most lose activity in low or high pH

20. Factors Affecting Enzyme Action
Reaction
Rate
Optimum pH pH

21. Substrate Concentration
Increasing substrate concentration increases the rate of reaction (enzyme concentration is constant)
Maximum activity reached when all of enzyme combines with substrate

22. Factors Affecting Enzyme Action
Maximum activity
Reaction
Rate
substrate concentration

23. Activators:
Sometimes you need an enzyme to work faster and your body creates an activator.
Other times you might eat something that acts as an activator.
Activators make enzymes work harder and faster. If you're running in a race and you need more energy, get those enzymes to work!

24. Activators

25. Inhibitors These are the opposite of activators.
Inhibitors either slow down or stop the activity of an enzyme.
They often bond to the protein, changing the overall shape of the enzyme.
A nasty example of an inhibitor is snake venom or maybe nerve gas from World War I.

26. Enzyme Inhibition Inhibitors cause a loss of catalytic activity
Change the protein structure of an enzyme
May be competitive or noncompetitive
Some effects are irreversible

27. Inhibitors

28. Learning Check
Sucrase has an optimum temperature of 37°C and an optimum pH of Determine the effect of the following on its rate of reaction
(1) no change (2) increase (3) decrease
A. Increasing the concentration of sucrose
B. Changing the pH to 4
C. Running the reaction at 70°C

29. Examples of Enzymes Proteases and peptidases –
A protease is any enzyme that can break down a long protein into smaller chains
Peptidases break peptides down into individual amino acids.
Proteases and peptidases are often found in laundry detergents
They help remove stains from cloth by breaking down the proteins.

30. Examples of Enzymes Amylases –
Amylases break down starch chains into smaller sugar molecules.
Saliva contains amylase
Maltase, lactase, sucrase finish breaking the simple sugars down into individual glucose molecules

31. Action of Maltase
Maltose is made of two glucose molecules bonded together (1).
The maltase enzyme is a protein that is perfectly shaped to accept a maltose molecule and break the bond (2).
The two glucose molecules are released (3).

32. Other Enzymes Lipases - Lipases break down fats
Cellulases - break cellulose molecules down into simpler sugars.
Bacteria in the guts of cows and termites excrete cellulases
This is how cows and termites are able to eat things like grass and wood.

33. Bioprocessing
This is the use of enzyme-controlled reactions to produce a product.
Bioprocessing traditionally used micro-organisms such as yeast or bacteria to produce products like cheese, yoghurts and alcohol.
Nowaday bioprocessing has developed to produce drugs, antibiotics, vitamins etc.
How they produced these products was they placed the substrate & enzyme into 1 vessel and let the reactions occur.

34. Immobilised Enzymes
Are enzymes that are attached or fixed to each other or an inert material.
Enzyme = sucrase fixed to sodium alginate
Advantages
Efficiency not effected
Can be recovered
Can be reused
Increases stability

35. Uses of Immobilised enzymes
Soft drinks
Glucose  Fructose
Enzyme used is Glucose Isomerase
Penicillin
Penicillin New antibiotic
Enzyme used is penicillin acylase
Very expensive
Lactase
Lactose Sweeter Sugars
Enzyme used Lactase
Very Expensive

36. Denaturation
When most proteins are heated over 40oc they gradually lose their shape.
Enzymes are made up of proteins if they lose their shape they cannot carry out reactions

37. Enzymes Extended Study

38. The Active Site
The Active site is the part of the enzyme that combines with the substrate

39. Contrary to belief the active site is not a rigid shape that is fixed to fit the substrate
When the substrate enters the active site it causes it to change shape slightly
The enzyme then fits more precisely around the substrate this is known as the Induced Fit model of enzyme action

41. The Bean Bag Theory!
The induced fit model can be compared to the way a bean bag will adapt to fit snugly around our body shape when we sit in it

42. Mechanism of Enzyme action (Induced fit model)
The substrate combines with the active site of the enzyme
Active Site
Substrate
Enzyme

43. 2. The active site is induced or caused to change shape slightly
Enzyme
Substrate

44. 3. The substrate and enzyme form an enzyme substrate complex
The bonds in the substrate are altered so that the substrate changes into the products
Substrate changed to products which are released
Enzyme Substrate complex

45. 4. The products leave the active site
4. The products leave the active site. The active site returns to its original shape and is ready for a new substrate molecule
Products
Active Site
New Substrate
Enzyme

46. Learning Check
Can you describe how enzymes and their substrates fit together?
What is this model of enzyme action called?
Can the enzyme work on more substrate once the products have been formed?

47. Optimum Conditions
Optimum temperature refers to the temperature at which the enzyme will work best
Optimum pH refers to the pH at which the enzyme will work best and so on
What do you think body enzyme’s optimum temperature is?

48. Denaturation
When most proteins are heated above 40⁰C or treated with certain chemicals or radiation they will gradually lose their 3 dimensional shape
This means they will not be able to form the enzyme / substrate complex
How does heat denature an enzyme?
Can you give an example of this?

49. Learning Check What is meant by Optimum?
What do you think the optimum temperature is for most body enzymes is?

50. Syllabus Can you?.....
Explain the active site theory to examine enzyme function & specificity.
Explain the term optimum activity with reference to temperature.
Explain the nature of heat denaturation