1. Take out a piece of paper
Name the Seven Dwarves

2. Now pick out the seven dwarves.
Turn your paper over
Now pick out the seven dwarves.
Grouchy Gabby Fearful Sleepy Smiley Jumpy Hopeful Goofy Sleazy Shy Droopy Moody Hoppy Dopey Sniffy Wishful Puffy Ren Dumpy Sneezy Pop Grumpy Cheesy Bashful Cheerful Teach Snorty Nifty Itchy Happy Doc Wheezy Stubby Poopy Diddy Stimpy

3. Seven Dwarves
Sleepy, Dopey, Grumpy, Sneezy, Happy, Doc and Bashful

4. Memory

5. Memory Feats

6. What Is Memory?
Definition: learning that has persisted over time; The ability to retain knowledge
Adaptive Advantage
Allowed animals to use information from the past to respond quickly to immediate challenges

7. Hermann Ebbinghaus Memorized series of nonsense syllables(TUV YOF GEK)
More times he practiced the list on day 1, the fewer repetitions he required to relearn it on day 2
Retention Curve

8. Information Processing Model
Memory system is often compared to that of a computer
Information has to be encoded (getting information to our brain)
Then stored (retained)
And finally retrieved (getting in out of the memory system)

9. Three Stage Processing Model
Proposed by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin
See pg 187
Rehearsal
Sensory Input
Forgetting
Forgetting

10. Encoding

11. Automatic v. Effortful Processing
Automatic Processing: Unconscious encoding of incidental information such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings
Space – we often encode the place on the page where material appears
Time – we unintentionally note the sequence of a day’s events
Frequency – we effortlessly keep track of how many times things happen (I ran into you four times today!)
Well-learned information – reading billboards, the writing on a truck
Effortful Processing: Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort
Often produces durable and accessible memories

12. Effortful Processing: Rehearsal & Spacing Effect
Rote Rehearsal: Repeating information over and over
Boosts memory
Spacing Effect: Distributed v. Massed Rehearsal
Distributed practice yields better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study/practice
Repeated quizzing also helps
“Testing is a powerful means of improving learning, not just assessing it.” – Henry Roediger and Jeffrey Karpicke

13. Rehearsal: Serial Position Effect
Our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list
Primacy Effect: Enhanced recall for items at the beginning of the list
More time to practice
Recency Effect: Enhanced recall for the last items on a list
Still in working/short-term memory
Presidents, names, word lists, etc.

14. What We Encode Visual: Encoding of picture images (imagery)
Acoustic: Encoding of sound (the sound of words)
Semantic: Encoding of meaning (meaning of words)
Which yields the best memory of verbal information?
Fergus Craik and Endel Tulving
Flashed a word at people
Then asked a question that required participants to process the word visually, acoustically, or semantically
Is the word in capital letters?
Does the word rhyme with train?
Would the word fit into this sentence? The girl put the ______on the table.

15. Types of Encoding: Results

16. Organizing Information for Encoding
Chunking: Organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically
FBIIRSCIAEPA
FBI IRS CIA EPA
Hierarchies: Composed of a few broad concept divided and subdivided into narrower concepts

17. Encoding: Mnemonic Device
A memory trick or technique for remembering specific facts
“Every good boy does fine” to remember the notes on the lines of the scale
“People say you could have odd lots of good years” as a way to remember how to spell “psychology”

18. Loci Method: A person associates items to be remembered with places
Mnemonic Devices
Loci Method: A person associates items to be remembered with places
Peg-Word: A person associates items to remember with a list of peg words already memorized
Goal is to visualize the items to remember with the items on the pegs

19. Peg Word System

20. Storage

21. Sensory Memory/Sensory Registers
First stage of storage that holds large amounts of incoming data for very brief amounts of time
Iconic Memory: Momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli
A photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second
Echoic Memory: Momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli
If attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

22. Sensory Memory Experiment
Sperling (1960)
R G T F M Q L Z S
“Recall”
R T M Z
(44% recall)
50 ms (1/20 second)
The exposure time for the stimulus is so small
that items cannot be rehearsed.

23. Partial Report S X T J R S P K Y “Recall” J R S (100% recall) Low Tone
Medium Tone
High Tone
“Recall”
J R S
(100% recall)
50 ms (1/20 second)
Sperling (1960) argued that sensory memory capacity was larger than what was originally thought.

24. Time Delay A D I N L V O G H “Recall” N _ _ (33% recall) Low Tone
Medium Tone
High Tone
“Recall”
N _ _
(33% recall)
Time
Delay
50 ms (1/20 second)

25. The duration of sensory memory varies for the different senses.
Sensory Memories
The duration of sensory memory varies for the different senses.
Iconic
0.5 sec. long
Echoic
3-4 sec. long
Hepatic
< 1 sec. long

26. Working Memory (Short-Term)
A tiny amount of information from your sensory registers will move to short term memory
Conscious, activated memory which holds information briefly before it is stored or forgotten
Stays in as long as you can rehearse it
Slightly better for what we hear than what we see
Small capacity
Can hold the “magic number 7 plus or minus 2” – George Miller
Can increase it by chunking
Also called working memory
Actively manipulating information

27. From Short Term to Long Term
Moves to long term as a result of rehearsal
Elaborative Rehearsal: linking new material to things you already know

28. Long Term Memory Capacity is limitless
Estimates on capacity range from 1000 billion to 1,000,000 billion bits of information (Landauer, 1986)

29. Types of Long term Memories
Explicit (Declarative): Memories for information we can readily express in words and that we are aware of having; Can be intentionally retrieved from memory
Semantic: Facts and concepts not liked to a particular time; Like a dictionary or encyclopedia
Episodic: Personally experienced events
Processed by hippocampus (active during deep sleep), not stored here
Implicit (Nondeclarative): Memories for information that we cannot readily express in words and may not be aware of having
Procedural: motor skills and habits
Emotional Memories: learned emotional responses to various stimuli (usually through classical conditioning)
Processed by the cerebellum
Flashbulb memories

30. To summarize….

31. Warning Memories are not stored in one “spot” in the brain
Working memory is processed in the prefrontal cortex and temporal lobe
Long-term semantic memories are located in the frontal and temporal lobes
Episodic: frontal and temporal

32. Neural Basis for memory
Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)
A long-lasting change in the structure or function of a synapse that increases the efficiency of neural transmission and is thought to be related to how information is stored by neurons
An increase in neurotransmitter release or receptors on the receiving neuron indicates strengthening of synapses

33. Stress and memories In stressful situations
Emotion-triggered stress hormones make more glucose energy available for brain activity
Boost in amygdala activity
Result: Arousal can sear certain events into the brain
Epinephrine and cortisol can affect long-term retention of negative memories
Sudden stress hormones can block older memories

34. Retrieval
Recall v. Recognition: We remember more than we recall

35. Mind reconstructs a memory out of the stored bits
During retrieval, information flows from long-term memory back to working memory
Mind reconstructs a memory out of the stored bits
Retrieved information is blended with the new content currently present in the working memory
Prone to change
Future retrievals will bring up the modified file!

36. Cues: Stimulus that helps you access target information
Recognition!
Most effective cues are those we generate ourselves
Elaborative rehearsal
The more retrieval cues, the more likely you are to remember
Priming: The activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory

37. Context/Mood Congruent Memory
Context Congruent Memory: Enhanced ability to retrieve information when you are in an environment similar to the one in which you encoded the information
More similar to your retrieval circumstances are to your encoding circumstances, the more likely you are to remember the information
Retracing your footsteps
Revisiting the scene of a crime
Mood Congruent Memory: The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood

38. Forgetting

39. Why Do we Forget? Daniel Schacter Three Sins of Forgetting
Absent-mindedness: inattention to details leads to encoding failure
Transience: storage decay over time
Blocking: inaccessibility of stored information
Three Sins of Distortion
Misattribution: confusing the source of information
Suggestibility: the lingering effects of misinformation
Bias: belief-colored recollections
One Sin of Intrusion:
Persistence: unwanted memories

40. Most of what we sense we never notice Slower encoding with age
Encoding Failure
Most of what we sense we never notice
If you don’t encode it, you can’t retrieve it
Slower encoding with age

43. Storage Decay Hermann Ebbinghaus’ “Forgetting Curve”
We forget a lot right away, but then it levels off!
Result: Some memories do “decay”
Explanation?
Fading of the memory traces in our brains?

44. Retrieval Failure
Forgetting is often a result of not being able to get out the memories we have stored
Why?
Proactive Interference: Something you learned earlier disrupts your recall of something you learn later
Forward-acting
Retroactive Interference: Occurs when new information makes it harder to recall something you learned earlier
Backward-acting
Information that is presented in the hour before sleep is protected from retroactive interference
But not in the few minutes before sleep!

45. Motivated forgetting We unknowingly revise our memories
People who were told the benefit of tooth-brushing recalled having frequently more brushed their teeth in the preceding two weeks then people who were not told the benefit of tooth-brushing
Memory is often self-serving
Sigmund Freud and Memory
We repress (banish from the conscious) painful memories to protect our self-concept and to minimize anxiety
“Submerged” memory will linger and could be retrieved by some later cue or during therapy
Many psychologists think repression is rare
We might actually be more likely to remember emotional memories

46. Memory construction
We infer our past from stored information plus what we later imagined, expected, saw, or heard
Elizabeth Loftus
Misinformation Effect: After exposure to subtle misinformation, many people misremember
We alter and save the new file
One experiment showed people digitally altered photos depicting themselves (from childhood) taking a hot air balloon ride three times over two weeks, half of the participants “remembered” the experience
It is then hard for us to discriminate between these altered and real memories
Source Amnesia (misattribution): attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined
Rumors!

47. Children and Eyewitness Recall
Children’s memories are extremely susceptible to suggestibility
Experiments
Researchers asked 3-year-olds to show on anatomically correct dolls where a pediatrician had touched them; 55% of children who had not received genital examinations pointed there.
Preschoolers overheard a false comment that a magician’s rabbit had gotten loose in their classroom. Later, when suggestively questioned , 78% recalled actually seeing the rabbit.
Children chose cards from a deck of possible happenings and an adult read the card followed by, “Think real hard, and tell me if this ever happened to you. Can you remember going to the hospital with a mousetrap on your finger?” After 10 weekly interviews, with the same adults repeatedly asking children to think about several real and fictitious events, a new adult asked the same question. 58% produced false, often vivid, stories regarding one or more events they had never experienced.

48. Suggestions for children’s testimony
Use a neutral person
Do not ask leading questions
Keep children from involved adults

49. Recovering repressed memories
Can clinicians help their patients “recover” memories of childhood abuse?
How can we interpret therapists who use “memory work” techniques like guided imagery, hypnosis, and dream analysis?

50. Agreed upon facts Regarding Repressed memories
1. Sexual abuse happens
2. Injustice happens
3. Forgetting happens
4. Recovered memories are commonplace
Do our minds forcibly repress painful experiences?
5. Memories of things happening before age 3 are unreliable
6. Memories “recovered” under hypnosis or the influence of drugs are especially unreliable
7. Memories, whether real or false, can be emotionally upsetting

51. Types of Amnesia
Anterograde Amnesia: Cannot recall events that happen after the onset of the amnesia
Damage to hippocampus
Retrograde Amnesia: Cannot recall events before the amnesia set in
Disease, brain injury
Infantile Amnesia: Most people cannot remember events prior to the age of 3
Immaturity in parts of the brain

52. Improving Memory