1. Infancy: Cognitive Development
CHAPTER 6
Infancy: Cognitive
Development

2. Learning Outcomes
LO1 Examine Jean Piaget’s studies of cognitive development.
LO2 Discuss the information-processing approach.
LO3 Identify individual differences in intelligence among infants.
LO4 Examine language development in infancy.
This slide serves as an overview of the topics presented in this chapter. They correlate to the Learning Outcomes in the text.
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3. TRUTH OR FICTION? PRE-QUIZ
T F For 2-month old infants, “out of sight” is “out of mind.”
T F A 1-hour old infant may imitate an adult who sticks out his or her tongue.
T F Psychologists can begin to measure intelligence in infancy.
T F Infant crying is a primitive form of language.
T F You can advance children’s development of pronunciation by correcting their errors.
T F Children are “pre-wired” to listen to language in such a way that they come to understand rules of grammar.
Pre-Quiz to stimulate class discussion of topics covered in this chapter. Answers will be inserted in notes as the material is encountered.
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4. LO1 Cognitive Development: Jean Piaget
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5. Cognitive Development – Jean Piaget
Focus on development of how children perceive and mentally represent the world
PIAGET’S HYPOTHESIS
Cognitive processes develop in an orderly sequence of stages
Rate of development is variable to individuals but sequence remains constant
TERMS AND CONCEPTS
Schemes
Children’s concepts of the world
Assimilation
Incorporating new events into existing schemes
Accommodation
If assimilation does make sense of new events, children try to modify existing schemes through accommodation.

6. Cognitive Development – Jean Piaget
Piaget’s FOUR STAGES of cognitive development:
Sensorimotor: B-2 yrs
Preoperational: 2-7 yrs
Concrete operational: 7-11 yrs
Formal operational: 12 yrs - adult
In this chapter we will be discussing the 1st Stage only. Sensorimotor- as it applies to Infancy

7. Cognitive Development – Jean Piaget
Sensorimotor Stage
The first 2 years of cognitive development
It is divided into six sub-stages.
Simple Reflexes
Primary Circular Reactions
Secondary Circular Reactions
Coordination of Secondary Schemes
Tertiary Circular Reactions
Invention of New Means through Material Combinations
Each Sub-stage will be addressed individually on separate slides.

8. Cognitive Development – Jean Piaget
Sensorimotor Stage
Sub-stage 1 – Simple Reflexes
B-1 month
Dominated by assimilation of stimuli into reflexes
Within first few hours, infants began to modify reflexes as a result of experiences
There seems to be no connection between stimuli from different sensory modalities
Making no effort to grasp objects they visually track

9. Cognitive Development – Jean Piaget
Sensorimotor Stage
Sub-stage 2 – Primary Circular Reactions
1-4 months
Beginning to coordinate different schemes
Focus on the infant’s own body rather than external stimuli
3-months: infants examine objects intensely
No longer simply looking but “looking in order to see”
Sensorimotor coordination is self-reinforcing because they repeat actions that allow them to “see.”
The desire to prolong stimulation is seen as a “basic” drive much like hunger and thirst.

10. Cognitive Development – Jean Piaget
Sensorimotor Stage
Sub-stage 3 – Secondary Circular Reactions
4-8 months
Focus shifts from self to objects and environmental events
Patterns of activity are repeated because of their effect on the environment
Infants may now lean to shake a rattle

11. Cognitive Development – Jean Piaget
Sensorimotor Stage
Sub-stage 4 – Coordination of Secondary Schemes
9-12 months
Can now coordinate schemes to attain specific goals
Begin to show intentional, goal-directed behavior
Gain capacity to imitate gestures and sounds they previously ignored

12. Cognitive Development – Jean Piaget
Sensorimotor Stage
Sub-stage 5 – Tertiary Circular Reactions
12-18 months
Infants now engage in tertiary circular reactions or purposeful adaptation of established schemes to specific situations
Become “budding scientists” experimenting with their actions dozens of times in deliberate trial-and-error testing to learn how things work

13. Cognitive Development – Jean Piaget
Sensorimotor Stage
Sub-stage 6 – Invention of New Means Through Mental Combinations
18-24 months
Transition stage between sensorimotor development and the development of symbolic thought
External exploration is replaced by mental exploration
By 18 mos, child may also use imitation to symbolize a plan of action
Also begin to exhibit concept of deferred imitation
Imitation of an action that may have occurred hours, days, or even weeks earlier

14. Cognitive Development – Jean Piaget
Development of Object Performance
Awareness that an object or person continues to exist when out of sight
Object permanence is tied to the development of the infant’s working memory and reasoning ability
Newborns
Show no tendency to respond to objects not within their immediate grasp
Answer to T-F? # 1 - For 2-month-old infants,”out of sight” is “out of mind”. TRUE - Two-month-olds have not yet developed object permanence.

15. Cognitive Development – Jean Piaget
Development of Object Performance
2 - 6 months
At 2 months they may show surprise at missing objects but make no attempt to search for them
Typically infants at this stage behave as if object is gone if out of sight
But by 6 months infants will tend to look for objects they have dropped
months (sub-stage 4)
Baby now seeks to find objects that have been hidden from their sight.
“A not B” error: baby will continue to seek lost object in the place where they have found it before, even if they see it has not been placed there
By 9-10 months this error no longer occurs if the retrieval is immediate; if having to wait 5 or more seconds they tend to revert to the error behavior

16. Evaluation of Piaget’s Theory
Pros
Still provides a comprehensive model of cognitive development
Confirmation of patterns and sequences observed in many other cultures worldwide
Cons
Process appears to be more gradual; not tied to discrete stages
Overlooks the importance of interpersonal influences
Seems to underestimate competency of infants
Infants seem to display object permanence earlier than (s)he thought
Deferred Imitation also occurs earlier than (s)he indicated (9 mos instead of 18 mos)
Just a note for thought on the “cons” to open for class discussion. Is the earlier maturation due to error in his observation, or is it perhaps a function of faster development in our children today as opposed to 50 years ago?

17. LO2 Information Processing
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18. Information Processing
Focuses on how children manipulate new information or previously stored information
Tools for processing include:
Memory
Memory is critical in development of all cognitive development.
Newborns display memory for stimuli previously exposed to them.
Dramatic improves are seen between 2-6 months and again at 1 yr.
Infant memory skills can be improved with use of reminders (“priming”).
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19. Information Processing
Tools for processing include:
Imitation
“Infant see, infant do” Imitation is basis for much of human learning.
Some studies show neonates only 0.7 to 71 hrs. old display imitation of adult gestures other have not.
The key may be up to 2 wks imitation appears to be a reflex and it typically disappears as reflexes “drop out” and re-emerge later.
These early imitations could be an evolutionary response to assist survival by helping to form infant/caregiver bonding.

20. LO3 Individual Differences in Intelligence among Infants
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21. Individual Differences in Intelligence Among Infants
Cognitive development does not proceed the same in all infants.
Measuring cognition/intelligence in infants is very different from adults.
Bayley Scales of Infant Development
Originally developed in 1933
Current updated version consists of:
178 mental scale items
Verbal, perceptual, problem-solving, learning, memory skills
111 motor scale items
Gross skills: standing, walking, climbing; Fine: hand, finger dexterity
Behavior rating (based on examiner observations)
1. Attention Span
2. Goal directedness
3. Persistence
4. Social and Emotional development

22. Table 6.1 - Items from the Bayley Scales of
Infant Development

23. Individual Differences in Intelligence Among Infants
Testing Infants: Why and with What?
Screening for handicaps one major reason
Difficult to test infants; administered one-to-one, individual judgments prevail
Number of tests developed:
Bayley Scale; Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale; Denver Developmental Screening Test
Instability of Intelligence Scores in Infancy
Screening is also done to predict future development
Overall they fail to predict accurately over long period
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24. Individual Differences in Intelligence Among Infants
Use of Visual Recognition Memory
Ability to discriminate previously seen object from new ones (based on habituation)
Infants with greater visual recognition later attained higher IQ scores
In Sum:
Scales of infant development may prove useful as screening devices, or for research or descriptive purposes but their predictive power is not valid.

25. LO4 Language Development in Infancy
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26. Language Development in Infancy
Early Vocalizations
Prelinguistic Vocalizations
Actual words are symbols of objects and events; prelinguistic vocalizations do NOT represent objects or events.
Newborns
Utilize crying as an effective form of verbal expression
2 months
Cooing (happy sounds)
Use tongue more; sounds are more articulated; linked to pleasure or excitement; not associated with hunger or pain
Answer to T-F? # 4 - Infant crying is a primitive form of language. FICTION - Not so; cries do not represent objects or events. Therefore, crying is a pre-linguistic event, not a form of language at all.

27. Language Development in Infancy
Prelinguistic Vocalizations
6-9 months
Babbling (first sounds resembling human speech)
8 mos cooing decreases and babbling begins
Frequently combining consonant and vowel sounds; ( ba ba - ma ma - da da)
10-12 months
Echolalia (begin to repeat syllables at length)
Ah bah bah bah bah bah
Intonation (begin to use patterns of rising and falling tones)

28. Table 6.2 – Milestones in Language Development In Infancy
Source: Table items adapted from Lenneberg (1967, pp. 128–130).
Note: Ages are approximations. Slower development does not necessarily indicate language problems. Albert Einstein did not talk until the age of 3.

29. Language Development in Infancy
Development of Vocabulary
Refers to learning the meanings of words
Receptive vocabulary: words they can understand
Expressive vocabulary: words they can use
At any given time, children can understand more words than they can use.
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30. Language Development in Infancy
Development of Vocabulary, con’t
Child’s First Words (a milestone in development)
Usually between months
Range of 8-18 months considered normal
Brief, one or two syllables
Acquisition slow at first; taking 3-4 months to achieve words
By 18 months, producing up to 50 words
65% of first words are:
General nominals: names and classes of objects
Specific nominals: proper nouns
Words expressing movement are also common
18-24 months: rapid burst, increasing from 50 to 300 words
A.K.A. “naming explosion” because 75% are nouns
Growth continues with acquisition of average of 9 new words a day

31. Language Development in Infancy
Development of Vocabulary, con’t
Referential language style
Uses language primarily to label object in the environment
Expressive language style
Uses language primarily for engaging in social interactions
Uses more pronouns and words involved in social routines
More children use expressive style; most use a combination
Overextension
Extending the meaning of one word to refer to things and actions for which they have no words yet
Generally based on perceived similarities in function or form between original object or action and the new one
Overextensions gradually correct as child’s vocabulary and classification skills improve

32. Language Development in Infancy
Development of Sentences
Typically one-word utterances but express complete ideas
Telegraphic Speech
Brief expressions that have the meaning of sentences
Holophrase: single words used to express complex meanings
Two-Word Utterances: brief and telegraphic but show understanding of syntax (proper word order); start around months (when vocabulary reaches words)
Mean Length of Utterance (MLU)
The average number of morphemes used in a sentence
Morphemes: the smallest units of meaning in a language
Patterns in rate of increase in MLU are similar for each child.

33. Theories of Language Development
Languages are passed down from generation to generation (with minor changes).
Possible roles of Nurture & Nature
Nurture: Learning Theories
Nature: Nativist Views
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34. Theories of Language Development
Views that Emphasize Nurture
Role of Imitation
Parents are models with children learning in part from observation and imitation.
But some language is spontaneous and resistant to adult correction.
Role of Reinforcement
Skinner theorized cooing and babbling may be innate but due to reinforcement they lead to language.
Extinction of foreign sounds and adherence to native tongue language takes place through shaping (moving a desired behavior toward a goal by gradual progressive reinforcement).
Selective reinforcement of pronunciation can also “backfire”
Children whose parents reward proper pronunciation but correct poor pronunciation develop vocabulary slower than those whose parents are more tolerant of errors.
Answer to T-F? # 5 - You can advance children’s development of pronunciation by correcting their errors. FICTION - Selective reinforcement of a child’s pronunciation can actually backfire by delaying language development.

35. Theories of Language Development
Views that Emphasize Nurture, con’t.
Learning theory also cannot account for invariant sequences and spurts in acquisition.
Types of questions, passive vs. active sentences, etc. all emerge in the same order
But some aspects of environment do influence and enhance language development, such as:
Use of “Motherese” a simplified form of speech
Using questions that engage child in conversation
Making positive responses to child’s expressive language attempts
Joining in child’s play and paying attention to their interests
Making gestures to help child understand
Describing aspects of environment that have gained child’s attention
Reading to the child
Talk to the child a great deal
Next slide will be inserted box on topic of Motherese

36. Theories of Language Development
Views that Emphasize Nature
Nativist View: holds inborn factors cause children to attend to and acquire language in certain ways:
Evolutionary Theory:
Structures that enable humans to perceive and produce language evolved in bits and pieces.
Individuals endowed with those were more likely to reach maturity and transmit their genes because communication ability increased their chances of survival.
Next slide will be inserted box on topic of Motherese

37. Theories of Language Development
Views that Emphasize Nature, con’t.
Psycholinguistic Theory: (Noam Chomsky)
Language acquisition involves interaction between various environmental influences and an inborn tendency to acquire language.
Chomsky labeled this innate tendency a language acquisition device (LAD).
Evidence for support is found in:
Universality of language abilities; Regularity of early sounds (even among deaf children); Commonality of sequencing in all languages
Inborn tendency primes the nervous system to learn grammar:
Surface Structure: languages vary greatly
Deep Structure: but all variations share a “universal grammar”
Chomsky believes children are pre-wired to attend to language and deduce rules for making sentences from ideas.
Answer to T-F? # 6 - Children are “pre-wired” to listen to language in such a way that they come to understand rules of grammar. TRUE - This pre-wiring has been termed a language acquisition device (LAD).

38. Theories of Language Development
Views that Emphasize Nature, con’t.
Brain Structures Involved in Language
Left Hemisphere of Cerebral Cortex
Broca’s Area
Located near section of motor cortex controlling muscles of tongue, throat, and other areas of face involved in speech
If damaged the ability to speak is compromised but can still understand speech of others: Broca’s Aphasia
Wernicke’s Area
Located near auditory cortex; connected to Broca’s area by nerves
If damaged can still speak, but have trouble finding words to express thoughts, and in understanding speech of others: Wernicke’s Aphasia
Angular Gyrus
Located between visual cortex and Wernicke’s Area
Translates visual information (written words) into auditory information (sounds) and sends to Wernicke’s area
If damaged can cause problems in reading.