1. Knowledge and Understanding Some further reflections

2. Observing that a weight consistently falls to the ground allows the observer to conclude that he/she has knowledge of the way falling bodies behave. Observing that a weight consistently falls to the ground allows the observer to conclude that he/she has knowledge of the way falling bodies behave. But that knowledge does not mean that we understand why / how gravity operates. But that knowledge does not mean that we understand why / how gravity operates. Yet the case can be made that many scientists do seek to understand such events, that they do want to do more than merely to measure. Yet the case can be made that many scientists do seek to understand such events, that they do want to do more than merely to measure. So while it may be true that we do not understand how gravity operates, we can understand enough to be able to predict how it operates, and we continue to speculate about the nature of the phenomenon. So while it may be true that we do not understand how gravity operates, we can understand enough to be able to predict how it operates, and we continue to speculate about the nature of the phenomenon.

3. Greek scientists varied between three extremes Rationalists [Plato, and his school] who believed that knowledge of the sensory world was impossible because it was / is constantly in flux. The only true knowledge was of abstract forms. Rationalists [Plato, and his school] who believed that knowledge of the sensory world was impossible because it was / is constantly in flux. The only true knowledge was of abstract forms. Empiricists [Aristotle, and his school] who believed that knowledge gained by the senses had to be tested –they were not consistent about doing so. Empiricists [Aristotle, and his school] who believed that knowledge gained by the senses had to be tested –they were not consistent about doing so. Cynics who believed that knowledge of anything was impossible. Cynics who believed that knowledge of anything was impossible. Consider three texts in the empiricist tradition.

4. From the Hippocratic corpus ”…in Thasos during autumn, about the time of the equinox to near the setting of the Pleiades [21 Sept., to 8 Nov.], there were many rains, gently continuous, with southerly winds. Winter southerly, north winds light, droughts; on the whole, the winter was like spring. Spring southerly and chilly; slight showers. Summer in general cloudy. No rain. Etesian [strong, cold, from north]winds few, light, irregular. The whole weather proved southerly, with droughts, but early in the spring a few patients suffered from ardent fevers, and these very mild, causing hemorrhage in few cases and no deaths. There were swellings beside the ears, in many cases on one side, but in most on both; in most cases unattended with fever, so that the confinement to bed was unnecessary [probably mumps]. In some cases there was slight heat, but in all the swellings subsided, without causing harm; in no case was there suppuration such as attends swelling of other origin. This was the character of them: flabby, big, spreading, with neither inflammation nor pain, in every case the disappeared without a sign. The sufferers were youths, young men and men in their prime, usually those who frequented the wrestling school or gymnasia. Few women were attacked [could these detail be relevant to the spread of the disease?]. Many had dry coughs which brought up nothing when the coughed, but their voices were hoarse. Soon thereafter, though in some cases after some time, painful inflammations occurred either in one testicle or in both, sometimes accompanied with fever, in other cases not. Usually they caused much suffering. In other respects the people had no ailments requiring medical assistance."

5. Medical Text: Hippocrates The text records accurately all the symptoms known. The text records accurately all the symptoms known. It omits any reference to divine beings It omits any reference to divine beings Explicitly there is no reference to a generalized understanding of disease, but implicitly there is an assumption that the accurate collection of data [knowledge] may be useful for understanding natural processes. Explicitly there is no reference to a generalized understanding of disease, but implicitly there is an assumption that the accurate collection of data [knowledge] may be useful for understanding natural processes.

6. Herodotus and the Nile No divinities No divinities Explanations must be consistent with observed / known phenomena Explanations must be consistent with observed / known phenomena Feels compelled to provide an explanation that reveals an understanding of why the Nile floods when it does Feels compelled to provide an explanation that reveals an understanding of why the Nile floods when it does

7. Another Medical Text: Thucydides on the Plague at Athens Plague Thucydides records all the symptoms Thucydides records all the symptoms States explicitly that he does not understand the origin and cause of the pestilence, States explicitly that he does not understand the origin and cause of the pestilence, Yet claims that accurate knowledge of what has happened may provide effective guidance to the future. Yet claims that accurate knowledge of what has happened may provide effective guidance to the future.

8. Summary Do scientists restrict themselves to observation only? Do scientists restrict themselves to observation only? Or do they assume that accurate knowledge of nature [understanding how hit operates] is useful for policy and worthy of support in its own right? Or do they assume that accurate knowledge of nature [understanding how hit operates] is useful for policy and worthy of support in its own right? Some scientists believe that a their laws reflect understanding; others are more cynical Some scientists believe that a their laws reflect understanding; others are more cynical