1. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

2. Naming Saturated Hydrocarbons
The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) names for the first 12 "straight-chain" or "normal" alkanes are:
Number of Carbons in chain
Prefix
C-C
C=C
C C 1
Meth-
Methane 2
Eth-
Ethane
Ethene
Ethyne 3
Prop-
Propane
Propene
Propyne 4
But-
Butane
Butene
Butyne 5
Pent-
Pentane
Pentene
Pentyne 6
Hex-
Hexane
Hexene
Hexyne 7
Hept-
Heptane
Heptene
Heptyne 8
Oct-
Octane
Octene
Octyne 9
Non-
Nonane
Nonene
Nonyne 10
Dec-
Decane
Decene
Decyne 11
Undec-
Undecane
Undecene
Undecyne 12
Dodec-
Dodecane
Dodecene
Dodecyne

3. Alkanes and Cycloalkanes
The simplest saturated hydrocarbons are called alkanes.
Methane, CH4, is the simplest alkane.
The alkanes form a homologous series.
Each member of the series differs by a specific number and kind of atoms.

4. Alkanes and Cycloalkanes
The alkanes differ from each other by a CH2 or methylene group.
All alkanes have this general formula.
CnH2n+2
For example ethane, C2H6 , and propane, C3H8 , are the next two family members.

5. Alkanes and Cycloalkanes
Isomers are chemical compounds that have the same molecular formulas but different structures.
Two alkanes have the molecular formula C4H10.
They are a specific type of isomer called structural isomers.
Branched-chain alkanes are named by the following rules.

6. Naming Saturated Hydrocarbons
Choose the longest continuous chain of carbon atoms which gives the basic name or stem.
Number each carbon atom in the basic chain, starting at the end that gives the lowest number to the first group attached to the main chain (substituent).
For each substituent on the chain, we indicate the position in the chain (by an Arabic numeric prefix) and the kind of substituent (by its name).
The position of a substituent on the chain is indicated by the lowest number possible. The number precedes the name of the substituent.
When there are two or more substituents of a given kind, use prefixes to indicate the number of substituents.
di = 2, tri = 3, tetra = 4, penta = 5, hexa = 6, hepta = 7, octa = 8, and so on.
The combined substituent numbers and names serve as a prefix for the basic hydrocarbon name.
Separate numbers from numbers by commas and numbers from words by hyphens.
Words are "run together".

7. Naming Saturated Hydrocarbons
Alkyl groups (represented by the symbol R) are common substituents.
Alkyl groups are fragments of alkanes in which one H atom has been removed for the connection to the main chain.
Alkyl groups have the general formula CnH2n+1.
In alkyl groups the -ane suffix in the name of the parent alkane is replaced by -yl.
A one carbon group is named methyl.
A two carbon group is named ethyl.
A three carbon group is named propyl.
Three alkanes have the formula C5H12.
There are three structural isomers of pentane.

8. Alkanes and Cycloalkanes
There are five isomeric hexanes, C6H14.
The number of structural isomers increases rapidly with
increasing numbers of carbon atoms.
The boiling points of the alkanes increase with molecular weight.

9. Alkanes and Cycloalkanes
Cyclic saturated hydrocarbons are called cycloalkanes.
They have the general formula CnH2n.
Some examples are:

10. Alkenes The three classes of unsaturated hydrocarbons are:
alkenes and cycloalkenes, CnH2n
alkynes and cycloalkynes, CnH2n-2
aromatic hydrocarbons
The simplest alkenes contain one C=C bond per molecule.
The general formula for simple alkenes is CnH2n.
The first two alkenes are:
ethene, C2H4
and propene, C3H6
Each doubly bonded C atom is sp2 hybridized.
The sp2 hybrid consists of:
two s bonds (single bonds) and
one s and one p bond (double bond)

11. Alkenes
The systematic naming system for alkenes uses the same stems as alkanes.
In the IUPAC system, the -ane suffix for alkanes is changed to -ene.
Common names for the alkenes have the same stem but use the suffix -ylene is used.
In chains of four or more C atoms, a numerical prefix shows the position of the lowest-numbered doubly bonded C atom.
Always choose the longest chain that contains the C=C bond.
Polyenes contain two or more double bonds per molecule.
Indicate the number of double bonds with suffixes:
-adiene for two double bonds.
-atriene for three double bonds, etc.
The positions of the substituents are indicated as for alkanes.
The position of the C=C bond(s) is/are given the lowest number(s) possible.

12. Cycloalkenes Cycloalkenes have the general formula CnH2n-2.
Examples are:
cyclopentene
cyclohexene

13. Alkynes Alkynes with only one C  C bond have the formula CnH2n-2.
Alkynes contain CC bonds.
The simplest alkyne is C2H2, ethyne, or acetylene.
Alkynes with only one C  C bond have the formula CnH2n-2.
Each carbon atom in a C  C bond is sp hybridized.
Each sp hybrid contains two  bonds and two  bonds.
The carbon atom will have one single bond and one triple bond.
Alkynes are named like the alkenes except that the suffix -yne is used with the characteristic stem
The alkyne stem is derived from the name of the alkane with the same number of carbon atoms.

14. Hydrocarbons: A Summary
Carbon Atom Hybridization
C uses
C forms
Example
sp3
tetrahedral
4 sp3 hybrids
4  bonds
CH4
sp2
trigonal planar
3 sp2 hybrids & 1p orbital
3  bonds
1  bond
C2H4
sp linear
2 sp hybrids & 2 p orbitals
2  bonds
2  bonds
C2H2

15. Aromatic Hydrocarbons
Historically, aromatic was used to describe pleasant smelling substances.
Now it refers to benzene, C6H6, and derivatives of benzene.
Other compounds that have similar chemical properties to benzene are also called aromatic.
The structure of benzene, C6H6, is:
Coal tar is the common source of benzene and many other aromatic compounds.
Some aromatic hydrocarbons that
contain fused rings are:
napthalene

16. Resonance in Benzene π electrons delocalized C–C single bond = 154 pm
C=C bond = 134 pm
CC bonds in benzene = 139 pm
C6H6 has two resonance structures with alternating double bonds.
The π electrons are delocalized over the ring.
π electrons delocalized

17. Other Aromatic Hydrocarbons
Many aromatic hydrocarbons contain alkyl groups attached to benzene rings (as well as to other aromatic rings).
The positions of the substituents on benzene rings are indicated by the prefixes:
ortho- (o-) for substituents on adjacent C atoms
meta- (m-) for substituents on C atoms 1 and 3
para- (p-) for substituents on C atoms 1 and 4

18. Organic Halides
A halogen atom may replace almost any hydrogen atom in a hydrocarbon.
The functional group is the halide (-X) group.
Examples include:
chloroform, CHCl3
1,2-dichloroethane, ClCH2CH2Cl
para-dichlorobenzene

19. Alcohols and Phenols
The functional group in alcohols and phenols is the hydroxyl
(-OH) group.
Alcohols and phenols can be considered derivatives of hydrocarbons in which one or more H atoms have been replaced by -OH groups.
Phenols are derivatives of benzene in which one H has been replaced by replaced by -OH group.
The stem for the parent hydrocarbon plus an -ol suffix is the systematic name for an alcohol.
A numeric prefix indicates the position of the -OH group in alcohols with three or more C atoms.
Common names are the name of the appropriate alkyl group plus alcohol.

20. Alcohols and Phenols H H H C C O H H H
Ethyl alcohol (ethanol), C2H5OH, is the most familiar alcohol. H H H C C O H H H
Phenol, C6H5OH, is the most familiar phenol.

21. Alcohols and Phenols Secondary(2°) alcohols have the –OH group
Alcohols can be classified into three classes:
Primary (1°) alcohols like ethanol have the -OH group attached to a C atom that has one bond to another C atom.
Secondary(2°) alcohols have the –OH group
attached to a C atom that has bonds to
2 other C atoms.
For example,2-propanol:
Tertiary (3°) alcohols have the –OH group attached to a C atom that is bonded to 3 other C atoms.
For example, 2-methyl-2-propanol

22. Alcohols and Phenols
Alcohols are named using the stem for the parent hydrocarbon plus an -ol suffix in the systematic nomenclature.
A numeric prefix indicates the position of the -OH group in alcohols with three or more C atoms.
Common alcohol names are the name of the appropriate alkyl group plus the word alcohol.

23. Alcohols and Phenols
There are several isomeric monohydric acyclic (contains no rings) alcohols that contain more than three C atoms.
There are four isomeric four-carbon alcohols.

24. Alcohols and Phenols
There are eight isomeric five-carbon alcohols.

25. Alcohols and Phenols
Polyhydric alcohols contain more than one -OH group per molecule.

26. Alcohols and Phenols
Phenols are usually called by their common (trivial) names.

27. Ethers Ethers are not very polar and not very reactive.
Ethers may be thought of as derivatives of water in which both H atoms have been replaced by alkyl or aryl groups.
Ethers are not very polar and not very reactive.
They are excellent solvents.
Common names are used for most ethers.

28. Aldehydes and Ketones
The functional group in aldehydes and ketones is the carbonyl group.

29. Aldehydes and Ketones
Except for formaldehyde, aldehydes have one H atom and one organic group bonded to a carbonyl group.
Ketones have two organic groups bonded to a carbonyl group.

30. Aldehydes and Ketones
Common names for aldehydes are derived from the name of the acid with the same number of C atoms.
IUPAC names are derived from the parent hydrocarbon name by replacing -e with -al.

31. Aldehydes and Ketones
The IUPAC name for a ketone is the characteristic stem for the parent hydrocarbon plus the suffix -one.
A numeric prefix indicates the position of the carbonyl group in a chain or on a ring.

32. Amines
Amines are derivatives of ammonia in which one or more H atoms have been replaced by organic groups (aliphatic or aromatic or a mixture of both).
There are three classes of amines.

33. Carboxylic Acids
Carboxylic acids contain the carboxyl functional group.
The general formula for carboxylic acids is:
R represents an alkyl or an aryl group
IUPAC names for a carboxylic acid are derived from the name of the parent hydrocarbon.
The final -e is dropped from the name of the parent hydrocarbon
The suffix -oic is added followed by the word acid.
Many organic acids are called by their common (trivial) names which are derived from Greek or Latin.

34. Carboxylic Acids

35. Carboxylic Acids
Positions of substituents on carboxylic acid chains are indicated by numeric prefixes as in other compounds
Begin the counting scheme from the carboxyl group carbon atom.
They are also often indicated by lower case Greek letters.
 = 1st C atom
 = 2nd C atom
 = 3rd C atom, etc.

36. Nomenclature of Carboxylic Acids
Dicarboxylic acids contain two carboxyl groups per molecule.

37. Carboxylic Acids
Aromatic acids are usually called by their common names.
Sometimes, they are named as derivatives of benzoic acid which is considered to be the "parent" aromatic acid.

38. Some Derivatives of Carboxylic Acids

39. Alcohols and Phenols Ethers Aldehydes and Ketones Amines
The stem for the parent hydrocarbon plus an -ol suffix is the systematic name for an alcohol.
A numeric prefix indicates the position of the -OH group in alcohols with three or more C atoms.
Common names are the name of the appropriate alkyl group plus alcohol.
Ethers
Common names are used for most ethers.
Aldehydes and Ketones
Common names for aldehydes are derived from the name of the acid with the same number of C atoms.
IUPAC names are derived from the parent hydrocarbon name by replacing -e with -al.
The IUPAC name for a ketone is the characteristic stem for the parent hydrocarbon plus the suffix -one.
A numeric prefix indicates the position of the carbonyl group in a chain or on a ring.
Amines
Amines are derivatives of ammonia in which one or more H atoms have been replaced by organic groups (aliphatic or aromatic or a mixture of both).
There are three classes of amines.
Carboxylic Acids
IUPAC names for a carboxylic acid are derived from the name of the parent hydrocarbon.
The final -e is dropped from the name of the parent hydrocarbon
The suffix -oic is added followed by the word acid.
Many organic acids are called by their common (trivial) names which are derived from Greek or Latin.

40. When compounds contain more than one functional group, the order of precedence determines which groups are named with prefix or suffix forms. The highest precedence group takes the suffix, with all others taking the prefix form. However, double and triple bonds only take suffix form (-en and -yn) and are used with other suffixes.
Priority
Functional group
Formula
Prefix
Suffix 1
Cations    e.g. Ammonium
  –NH4+
-onio- ammonio-
-onium -ammonium 2
Carboxylic acids
–COOH
carboxy-
-oic acid* 3
Carboxylic acid derivatives    Esters    Acyl chlorides    Amides
  –COOR –COCl –CONH2
  R-oxycarbonyl- chloroformyl- carbamoyl-
    -oyl chloride* -amide* 4
Nitrites    Isocyanides
–CN –NC
cyano- isocyano-
-nitrile* isocyanide 5
Aldehydes    Thioaldehydes
–CHO –CHS
formyl- thioformyl-
-al* -thial* 6
Ketones    Thioketones
>CO >CS
oxo- thiono-
-one -thione 7
Alcohols    Thiols
–OH –SH
hydroxy- sulfanyl-
-ol -thiol 8
Amines
–NH2
amino-
-amine 9
Ethers    Thioethers
–O– –S–
-oxy- -thio-

42. Isomerism Isomers have identical composition but different structures
Two forms of isomerism
Constitutional (or structural)
Stereoisomerism
Constitutional
Same empirical formula but different atom-to-atom connections
Same atom-to-atom connections but different arrangement in space.
Geometric - Geometric isomers can occur when there is a C=C double bond.
Optical - Optical isomers are molecules with non-superimposable mirror images. Such molecules are called CHIRAL. Pairs of chiral molecules are enantiomers. Chiral molecules in solution can rotate the plane of plane polarized light.

43. Structural Isomers

44. Stereoisomers: Geometric
Geometric isomers can occur when there is a C=C double bond.
Trans-2-butene
Cis-2-butene

45. Stereoisomers: Optical
Optical isomers are molecules with non-superimposable mirror images.
Such molecules are called CHIRAL
Pairs of chiral molecules are enantiomers.
Chiral molecules in solution can rotate the plane of plane polarized light.
Chirality generally occurs when a C atom has 4 different groups attached.
Lactic acid

46. Chirality: Handedness in Nature
These molecules are non-superimposable mirror images.

47. Sugars: Related to Alcohols
Sugars are carbohydrates, compounds with the formula Cx(H2O)y.
What is the difference between a and b D-glucose?
Glycosidic bonds: The anomeric hydroxyl group (axial) and a hydroxyl group of another sugar or some other compound can join together, splitting out water to form a glycosidic bond.
R-OH + HO-R'   --> R-O-R' + H2O

48. Monosaccharides - simple sugars, with multiple hydroxyl groups.
Carbohydrates (also referred to as glycans) have the basic composition:
Monosaccharides - simple sugars,  with multiple hydroxyl groups.
Based on the number of carbons (e.g., 3, 4, 5, or 6) a monosaccharide is a triose, tetrose, pentose, or hexose, etc.
Disaccharides - two monosaccharides covalently linked
Oligosaccharides - a few monosaccharides covalently linked.
Polysaccharides - polymers consisting of chains of monosaccharide or disaccharide units
                                                                          
Aldoses (e.g., glucose) have an aldehyde at one end.
Ketoses (e.g., fructose) have a keto group, usually at C #2.

49. Nomenclature for stereoisomers: D and L designations are based on the configuration about the single asymmetric carbon in glyceraldehyde. 
For sugars with more than one chiral center, the D or L designation refers to the asymmetric carbon farthest from the aldehyde or keto group.
Most naturally occurring sugars are D isomers.
D & L sugars are mirror images of one another. They have the same name. For example, D-glucose and L-glucose are shown at right.
Haworth projections represent the cyclic sugars as having essentially planar rings, with the OH at the anomeric C1 extending either:
below the ring (a)
above the ring (b).

50. Sucrose and Ribose Deoxyribose, the sugar in the DNA backbone.
Sucrose, common table sugar, has a glycosidic bond linking the anomeric hydroxyls of glucose and fructose. Because the configuration at the anomeric carbon of glucose is a (O points down from the ring), the linkage is designated a(1®2). The full name is a-D-glucopyranosyl-(1®2)b-D- fructopyranose.

51. Fats and Oils R = organic group with NO C=C bonds C12 = Lauric acid
C16 = Palmitic acid
C18 = Stearic acid
What is the functional group in a fat or oil?
R = organic group with C=C bonds
C18 = oleic acid

52. Fats with C=C bonds are usually LIQUDS
Fats and Oils
Fats with C=C bonds are usually LIQUDS
Oleic acid: a monounsaturated fatty acid
C=C bond

53. Trans Fatty Acids Oleic acid is a mono–unsaturated cis-fatty acid
Trans fatty acids have deleterious health effects.
Trans fatty acids raise plasma LDL cholesterol and lower HDL levels.
C=C bond

54. Alpha-Amino Acids

55. - - - Peptides and Proteins – H2O
Adding more peptide links ---> PROTEIN

56. Polymers
Giant molecules made by joining many small molecules called monomers
Average production is 150 kg per person annually in the U.S.

57. Polymer Classifications
Thermoplastics (polyethylene) soften and flow when heated
Thermosetting plastics — soft initially but set to solid when heated. Cannot be resoftened.
Other classification: plastics, fibers, elastomers, coatings, adhesives
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58. Polymer Preparation
Addition polymers — directly adding monomer units together
Condensation polymers — combining monomer units and splitting out a small water (water)

59. Types of Polyethylene Linear, high density PE (HDPE)
Branched, low density PE, LDPE
Cross-linked PE, CLPE

60. Types of Polyethylene
Table 11.12: others are PVC, acrylonitrile, polypropylene, polymethyl methacrylate

61. Bubble Gum! A copolymer
Styrene + butadiene

62. Condensation Polymers

63. Polyamides: Nylon Each monomer has 6 C atoms in its chain.
A polyamide link forms on elmination of HCl
Result = nylon 66
Proteins are polyamides