1. Saturated hydrocarbons
Chapter 12

2. Organic and inorganic compounds
Organic chemistry concerns the chemistry of carbon compounds  contain C and H, but also maybe other p-block elements.
At the time of printing (Stoker, 5th edition), there were around 5 million organic compounds catalogued
Inorganic chemistry concerns the chemistry of the other 117 elements. Around 1.5 million of these are known
Non-polar
hydrocarbon tail
A polar,
charged group

3. Organic and inorganic compounds
The reason why there are so many organic compounds is that carbon is very good at forming bonds with other carbon atoms.
Carbon atoms are commonly found in chain-like arrangements or C-rings (or both within the same molecule).
Carbon has four valence electrons. In organic compounds, it forms four covalent bonds to obtain an octet.

4. Hydrocarbons and hydrocarbon derivatives
Hydrocarbons are compounds that contain only carbon and hydrogen in their formulas.
Two basic categories of hydrocarbon:
Saturated hydrocarbons: all carbon atoms are connected together with single bonds
Unsaturated hydrocarbons: involve one or more multiple (double, triple) C-C bonds
Hydrocarbon derivatives contain carbon and hydrogen, and one or more other elements (P, N, O, Cl, etc.)

5. Hydrocarbons and hydrocarbon derivatives
Saturated hydrocarbons may be found in two possible formats:

6. Alkanes: acyclic saturated hydrocarbons
An alkane is a saturated hydrocarbon that is acyclic (does not possess ring-structure).
Because all C-C bonds are single bonds (and because the other bonds that carbon needs to get an octet are to H-toms), alkanes have the general formula CnH2n+2 (n = # of C-atoms)
Examples of alkanes:
CH4
C2H6
C3H8

7. Alkanes: acyclic saturated hydrocarbons
In an alkane, each carbon is tetrahedral (it has four bonds to other atoms. Rem: VSEPR)
CH4
C2H6
C3H8

8. Alkanes: acyclic saturated hydrocarbons
Chemical formulas for alkanes are written as CnH2n+2; however, structural formulas give more information.
Chemical formula reveals the type and number of each element in the compound
Structural formulas show how each atom in the molecule is connected
expanded
structural
formula
condensed
structural
formula
name

9. Alkanes: acyclic saturated hydrocarbons
For longer carbon chains, an abbreviated, condensed structural formula is advantageous, as it shows most of the information of the expanded formula without taking up as much space
An 8-carbon chain (two CH3-groups
linked by a 6-carbon chain (6-CH2- units)
6 –CH2- units between
two CH3-groups

10. Alkanes: acyclic saturated hydrocarbons
Sometimes, a simple skeletal structural formula can be used to convey hydrocarbon structure
mean
the same
thing

11. Alkane isomerism
The types of alkanes we’ve considered so far involve “straight chain” types, where the carbon atoms form a continuous series (i.e. no branches).
When alkanes having four or more carbons are considered, there is more than one structural formula that can be used to describe a given molecular formula.

12. Alkane isomerism
The formula C4H10 can be represented by the following condensed structural formulas:
These compounds possess the same chemical formula,
but differ in the way the atoms are arranged (isomers)

13. Alkane isomerism
The C4H10 shown on the left is called a continuous chain alkane (or an unbranched/”straight-chain” alkane).
The one on the right is called a “branched-chain” alkane
These are called “constitutional isomers” which differ in their atom-to-atom connectivity

14. Alkane isomerism
As the number of carbon atoms in the alkane grows, so do the number of possible isomers.

15. Conformations of alkanes
The carbon-carbon bonds in alkanes permit rotation of each carbon-group with respect to the others that are chemically bound to it.

16. Conformations of alkanes
Conformations are specific, 3-dimensional arrangements of atoms in organic molecules (at some instant) that result from rotation about C-C single bonds.
Several conformations of a six-carbon chain are shown using the skeletal structures below:
All the same molecule: C6H14

17. Conformations of alkanes
Note that the following two skeletal structures describe two different alkanes:
Alkane on the left is a 6-carbon, continuous chain structure.
Alkane on the right is a branched structure (a 5-carbon, continuous
chain that has a 1-carbon branch)

18. Conformations of alkanes
Do the following pairs of condensed structural formulas describe the same alkane?

19. IUPAC nomenclature for alkanes
The names that have been shown for the branched alkanes so far are common names (made as these compounds were identified).
As the number of organic compounds catalogued grew, a system for naming was developed by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC).
The basic system used is one that employs a prefix-type name.

20. IUPAC nomenclature for alkanes
Names for continuous chain alkanes (first ten) are shown below. The names use a prefix (e.g. meth-) to designate the number of carbon atoms in the chain.
Alkanes have ”ane” at
the end of their name
Prefix
Meth-
Eth-
Prop-
But-
Pent-
Hex-
Hept-
Oct-
Non-
Dec-

21. IUPAC nomenclature for alkanes
Branched-chain alkanes can be described as continuous-chain alkanes with branches (substituents).
The IUPAC system of naming branched-chain alkanes describes the type and location of substituents before the name of the longest, continuous chain of carbon atoms in the alkane.
Substituents are the “branches” in branched-chain alkanes. They are atoms (or groups
of atoms for the kind we’ll look at first) that hang off the main carbon chain.

22. IUPAC nomenclature for alkanes
Substituents in branched-chain alkanes are called alkyl groups. An alkyl group is the group of atoms that would be created by removing a hydrogen atom from an alkane. They are named according to the alkane from which they are derived.
To get the substituent name:
take the alkane name and
replace the “ane” part with “yl”

23. IUPAC nomenclature for alkanes
To name a branched alkane, follow these steps:
1) Identify the longest, continuous carbon chain in the structure. This will be the base of the branched alkane’s name.
So far, we know this compound is going to be called some kind of butane)

24. IUPAC nomenclature for alkanes
2) Number this chain in a way that gives the carbon(s) with the substituent the lowest possible, overall numbering. The methyl substituent is thus located on C-2 (carbon-2)
(something something butane)

25. IUPAC nomenclature for alkanes
After locating the alkyl substituent by number, prefix the parent-chain alkane name (the longest, continuous carbon chain) with the number and the name of the substituent:
2-Methylbutane
Separate the number from the substituent name with a hyphen, and the last substituent name reads directly into the parent chain alkane name

26. IUPAC nomenclature for alkanes
Another example
Find the longest, continuous chain of C-atoms
Number them in a way that gives all substituents the lowest total numbering
Prefix the name of the parent alkane with the number and name of the substituent

27. IUPAC nomenclature for alkanes
One with multiple substituents:
2,3,4-Trimethylhexane
In cases where multiple substituents of the same type are present, prefix the
substituent name with di-, tri-, tetra-, etc. to indicate how many of them are present

28. IUPAC nomenclature for alkanes
If more than one kind of substituent is present, the alphabetic order of the substituents take priority over the number of the substituent when numbering the parent chain
Separate different
substituents with hyphens
3-Ethyl-4,5-dipropyloctane
3-Ethyl-2-methylhexane
(not 2-Methyl-3-ethylhexane)
The prefix part of the propyl substituents
are not counted for alphabetical ordering
(come back to this structure later)

29. IUPAC nomenclature for alkanes
IUPAC punctuation rules:
Separate numbers from letters with hyphens
Separate numbers from other numbers with commas
Don’t separate the last substituent name from the parent alkane chain 2
4-Ethyl-2,3-dimethyl-5-propylnonane 1 3

30. Line-angle structural formulas for alkanes
Line-angle structural formulas describe carbon-carbon bonds with straight lines (each point in the diagram represents a carbon atom with four bonds to carbon(s) and hydrogen(s) around it)
It is understood that each C-atom has four bonds; C-H bonds are there, but not shown

31. Classification of carbon atoms
The carbon atoms in organic structures are classified as primary, secondary, tertiary, or quaternary, depending on the number of other carbon atoms bound to them.
Primary (1o) C: bounds to one other C-atom
Secondary (2o) C: bound to two other C-atoms
Tertiary (3o) C: bound to three other C-atoms
Quaternary (4o) C: bound to four other C-atoms 1o 4o 3o 2o

32. Branched-chain alkyl groups
Sometimes, branched-chain substituents are encountered. These are named according to the parent alkane from which they are derived.
Substituent derives from a 4-C alkane
(butane) and point of attachment
is a tertiary C of the alkane
Substituent derives from a 3-C alkane
(propane) and point of attachment
is a secondary C of the alkane
4-Isopropyloctane
4-tert-Butyloctane
could also call this 4-sec-Propyloctane

33. Branched-chain alkyl groups
…another point: for the purposes of capitalization (at the beginning of the name), tert- and
sec-are not capitalized, but iso is
4-Isopropyloctane
4-tert-Butyloctane

34. Branched-chain alkyl groups
Given a choice between unbranched substituents and branched substituents, use unbranched ones for naming
3-Ethyl-2-methylhexane
(not 2-Methyl-3-ethylhexane)
also, not 3-Isopropylhexane

35. Cycloalkanes
Cyclic alkanes (cycloalkanes) are alkane chains where the end carbons are linked together (need to kick off 2 H atoms from the formula of the corresponding straight-chain alkane to get the cycloalkane formula).
The general formula for a cycloalkane is CnH2n

36. Cycloalkanes

37. IUPAC nomenclature for substituted cycloalkanes
If one substituent exists on a cycloalkane, no numbering is needed to denote its location
Ethylcyclohexane

38. IUPAC nomenclature for substituted cycloalkanes
If two substituents are present, the ring is numbered follows alphabetic priority.
If more than two substituents are present, the ring numbering is assigned in a way that gives the lowest overall substituent numbers (order they are reported in is still alphabetic)
1-Ethyl-2-methylcyclohexane
2-Ethyl-1-methyl-4-propylcyclohexane
(not 1-Ethyl-2-methyl-5-propylcyclohexane
or 1-Methyl-2-ethyl-4-propylcyclohexane)

39. Isomerism in cycloalkanes
Constitutional isomers are possible for cycloalkanes having four or more carbons:
These isomers differ in the way the carbon atoms
are connected together (constitutional isomers)

40. Isomerism in cycloalkanes
As before, as the number of carbons in the (cyclo)alkane grows, so do the number of constitutional isomers.

41. Isomerism in cycloalkanes
Another kind of isomerism we haven’t yet encountered, called stereoisomerism, involves molecules that have the same molecular formula, same atom-to-atom connectivity, but differ in the 3-dimensional arrangement of the atoms in space.
In cycoalkanes, there may exist the possibility of cis-, trans- isomers

42. Isomerism in cycloalkanes
There are two distinct molecules. One can’t be converted into the other without breaking bonds first.
Can have this form of isomerism for any cycloalkane that has more than one substituent.

43. Isomerism in cycloalkanes
Substituents also don’t need to be on adjacent carbon atoms of the ring (but can’t be on the same carbon atom of the ring)

44. Sources of alkanes and cycloalkanes
The crude petroleum that is obtained at drilling sites is a mixture of hydrocarbons (cyclic and acyclic) that is purified (refined) by taking advantage of the boiling point differences of the various components

45. Sources of alkanes and cycloalkanes
Boiling point is observed to increase with increasing chain C-chain length (and ring size for cycloalkanes).
About a 30o increase per additional C (–CH2- unit) in the chain.

46. Physical properties of alkanes and cycloalkanes
Alkanes and cycloalkanes are water-insoluble
Alkanes and cycloalkanes have densities that are less than that of water (0.6 – 0.8 g/mL, as compared to ~1 g/mL for H2O)
Boiling points of continuous chain alkanes and cycloalkanes increase with an increase in carbon-chain length or ring size
Cycloalkanes have higher boiling points than corresponding alkanes because they are more
rigid
Branched chain alkanes have lower boiling points because they are more compact and have
less surface areas that straight-chain forms

47. Chemical properties of alkanes and cycloalkanes
Alkanes and cycloalkanes have low chemical reactivities. The C-C bonds and C-H bonds are non-polar, which do not encourage reactions with other species, and the bond strengths are fairly high (strong bonds)
Two reactions that they are susceptible to are combustion and halogenation

48. Chemical properties of alkanes and cycloalkanes
In a combustion reaction, alkanes and cycloalkanes are reacted with O2 to form CO2 in an oxygen-rich environments (or CO or other C-products in less O2-rich environments).
Some examples of alkane combustion reactions:
CH4 + 2O2  CO2 + 2H2O + heat
2C6H O2  12CO2 + 14H2O + heat

49. Chemical properties of alkanes and cycloalkanes
Halogenation reactions involve halogen atoms (group 7: F, Cl, Br, I). These reactions involve the substitution of a hydrogen atom of an alkane with a halogen:
In general, the reaction goes like this:

50. Chemical properties of alkanes and cycloalkanes
In a substitution reaction, an atom or group of atoms is replaced by another atom (or group of atoms) in a hydrocarbon or hydrocarbon derivative.
On the surface, they are like the replacement reactions we’ve already studied

51. Chemical properties of alkanes and cycloalkanes
In situations where more than one type of product can result, a mixture of products is usually obtained.
In many cases, more than one H-atom can be substituted:

52. Nomenclature and properties of halogenated alkanes
Halogenated alkanes (or haloalkanes) are hydrocarbons (or their derivates) that possess at least one halogen atoms
Naming rules
Halogens are treated just like other (alkyl) substituents when numbering and alphabetic naming are considered
Substituents are called fluoro-, chloro, bromo-, and iodo- for the purposes of assigning names

53. Nomenclature and properties of halogenated alkanes
In terms of chemical reactivity, halogenated alkanes are more reactive than alkanes and cycloalkane analogues, because the C-X bond (X = halogen) makes the bond polar and thus susceptible to reactions that require initial dipole-dipole interactions.
Some halogenated alkanes have densities greater than that of water.
Chloroalkanes with 2 or more Cl-atoms
Bromoalkanes
Iodoalkanes