1. Chapter 3 The Structures of Music
Musical
Instruments

2. Key Terms Instrument families Percussion instruments
Stringed instruments
Bow
pizzicato
Woodwind instruments
Single-reed
Double-reed
Brass instruments
Percussion instruments
Pitched
Unpitched
Keyboard instruments
Action
Stops
Plucked stringed instruments

3. Key Terms Orchestra Orchestral seating plan Strings Woodwinds Brass
Percussion

4. Key Terms Stringed instruments Brass instruments Violin Viola Cello
Bass viol
Harp
Brass instruments
Trumpet
French horn
Trombone
Tenor trombone
Bass trombone
Tuba

5. Key Terms Woodwind instruments Oboe Bassoon Flute Saxophone Recorder
Piccolo
Alto flute
Bass flute
Recorder
Clarinet
E-flat clarinet
Bass clarinet
Oboe
English horn
Bassoon
Contrabassoon
Saxophone
Alto saxophone
Tenor saxophone

6. Key Terms Pitched percussion instruments
Timpani
Glockenspiel
Xylophone
Marimba
Vibraphone
Celesta
Tubular bells
Unpitched percussion instruments
Cymbals
Triangle
Tam-tam
Snare drum
Tenor drum
Bass drum

7. Key Terms Keyboard instruments Plucked stringed instruments Piano
Harpsichord
Clavichord
Organ
Pipe organ
Electronic keyboard instruments
Synthesizer
Plucked stringed instruments
Guitar
Mandolin
Lute
Theorbo
Archlute
Electric guitar

8. Stringed Instruments
A bow strung with horsehair “scrapes” against a string
The string’s vibration is carried via the bridge to the instrument’s body
The hollow body amplifies the sound
The left hand “stops” the string at different locations, changing the length of the vibrating string
Longer string = lower pitch
Shorter string = higher pitch

9. Stringed Instruments
Different bow strokes create different dynamics and articulations:
Legato
Staccato
Player can play a melody on one string at a time, or play chords on two or more strings simultaneously
Player can also pluck the strings:
Pizzicato

10. Violin Family Violin (“soprano/alto” range)
Versatile, can be forceful or delicate, brilliant or songlike
Four strings tuned in fifths
Held horizontally under chin
Player can stand or sit

11. Violin Family Viola (“tenor” range)
Mellow, “throaty” quality, but can also be powerful and intense
Four strings tuned in fifths
Held horizontally under chin
Player can stand or sit

12. Violin Family Cello (“bass” range) Rich, gorgeous, singing tone
Four strings tuned in fifths
Instrument stands vertically on the floor
Seated player leans neck back toward left shoulder, holds body between the knees

13. Bass Viol Very low “bass” range Deep, mellow, “chocolate” sound
Four strings tuned in fourths
Instrument stands vertically on the floor
Player stands behind it (or sits on a tall stool)
More often called string bass, double bass, or just bass
Usually bowed in classical music, usually plucked in jazz

14. Harp Concert harp has 47 strings, covers six and a half octaves
Strings correspond to white keys on keyboard: one string for each letter name
Seven pedals add sharps and flats
e.g., the A pedal can raise or lower all A strings by a half step
Normally plucked; glissando a popular special effect

15. Woodwind Instruments
Tube-shaped instruments; may be straight, bent, or curved
Players blow into tube via a mouthpiece
Sounds result from vibrations in the column of air inside the tube
Players open or close holes bored along the length of the tube, in effect shortening or lengthening the air column
Longer air column = lower pitch
Shorter air column = higher pitch

16. Flute Family Long cylindrical tube held horizontally
Mouthpiece an open hole on the side
Players set air column vibrating by blowing across the mouthpiece
Like tooting on a Coke bottle, but more sophisticated
Elaborate key mechanism opens and closes holes in tube

17. Flute Family Instruments
Flute (“soprano” range)
Extremely agile; can sound gentle or piercing
Piccolo (very high “soprano” range)
Alto flute (“alto” range)
Bass flute (“tenor/bass” range)
Recorder family
Old family of flutes held vertically
Player blows into mouthpiece at the top
Fingers cover holes directly; no keys

18. Single-Reeds A flat piece of cane reed is fastened to the mouthpiece
Mouthpiece is attached to the top of the instrument
Blowing into the thin hole between reed and mouthpiece forces reed to vibrate; this makes air column in tube vibrate as well
Elaborate key mechanism opens and closes holes in tube

19. Single-Reed Instruments
Clarinet family
Clarinet (“soprano/alto” range)
Rich, flexible, almost vocal sound
Can sound warm and mellow or shrill and strident
Slightly conical tube with narrow bell at end
Held vertically

20. Single-Reed Instruments
Clarinet family
E-flat clarinet (high “soprano” range)
Often used for its shrill, piercing sound
Short, slightly conical tube with narrow bell at end
Bass clarinet (“bass” range)
Deep, rich, mellow sound
Very long, slightly conical tube is bent forward at the bottom with a flaring, narrow bell at the end

21. Single-Reed Instruments
Saxophone family
Invented by Adolphe Sax in early 1800s
Similar to clarinet family
Single reed fastened to a mouthpiece
Several important differences
Wider tube, made of brass, not wood
More mellow yet more forceful sound
Tube is bent back at mouthpiece, forward at its wide, flaring bell
Often held diagonally across lap

22. Single-Reed Instruments
Saxophone family instruments
Alto saxophone
Tenor saxophone
The two most common saxophones
Soprano saxophone
Straight tube, held like clarinet
Baritone saxophone

23. Double-Reeds
Mouthpiece consists of two pieces of cane reed lashed together
Mouthpiece is inserted into hole at top of instrument
Blowing into mouthpiece forces reeds to vibrate against each other; this makes air column in tube vibrate as well
Elaborate key mechanism opens and closes holes in tube

24. Double-Reed Instruments
Oboe (“soprano” range)
Straight tube with narrow bell at end
Held vertically
English horn (“alto” range)
Slightly longer straight tube with narrow, bulbous bell

25. Double-Reed Instruments
Bassoon (“tenor/bass” range)
Very long tube folded back against itself at bottom end
Held across the lap at an angle
Mouthpiece inserted into a curved bocal
Contrabassoon (very low “bass” range)

26. Brass Instruments All use long tubes, often coiled
Small, cup-shaped mouthpiece is inserted into the end of the horn
Player holds mouthpiece to the mouth and buzzes lips
Lip vibrations force the air column inside the tube to vibrate
Players control pitch by changing tube length and “buzzing” speed
Faster = higher pitch; Slower = lower pitch

27. Brass Instruments Trumpet (“soprano” range)
Bright, strong, piercing tone
Long cylindrical tube, bent in several places with small, flared bell
Three valves used to change tube length

28. Brass Instruments French horn (“alto/tenor” range)
Lower, mellower, “thicker” tone
Can sound mysterious, romantic, or heroic
Longer conical tube in coils with very wide, flared bell
Valves used to change tube length
Player holds instrument with hand in bell

29. Brass Instruments Trombone (“tenor/bass” range)
Sound can range from singing and “vocal” to hard and powerful
Very long cylindrical tube with large, flared bell
Slide mechanism used to change tube length
Also used to create glissando effect

30. Brass Instruments Tuba Deep, full, mellow tone
Less agile than other brass instruments
Extremely long conical tube with many coils and a very wide flared bell
Valves used to change tube length
Seated player holds instrument in lap

31. Other Brass Instruments
Cornet
Like a trumpet, but conical tube makes it sound more mellow
Flügelhorn
Like a trumpet, but its larger size makes it sound deeper and more mellow
Bugle
Like a trumpet, but without valves

32. Other Brass Instruments
Euphonium
Baritone horn
Saxhorn
All three are pitched somewhere between French horn and tuba
Rich, mellow sound
Sousaphone
Portable, marching band version of tuba
Player carries it slung over the shoulder, bell in the air

33. Percussion Instruments
Instruments that are struck, slapped, scraped, and so on
Vibrating object may be a stretched membrane (a drumhead) or a solid or hollow piece of wood, metal, or plastic
May play specific pitches (xylophone) or indefinite ones (bass drum)
Percussion instruments can play louder and softer than any other family

34. Timpani
Large, hemispherical (kettle-shaped) drums come in several sizes, used in groups of two or more
Played with felt mallets
Can be tuned to specific pitches
Usually plays a bass line
Player tunes drums with foot pedals (sometimes with screws)
Greater tension = higher pitch
Less tension = lower pitch

35. Pitched Percussion
Usually a set of metal or wooden bars or plates tuned and arranged like a piano keyboard
Bars can be struck with yarn, rubber, plastic, or metal mallets
Metal bars sustain sound longer than wooden ones
Colorful, distinctive sounds

36. Pitched Percussion Glockenspiel Xylophone Marimba
Small steel bars with brass mallets
Bright, penetrating sound
Xylophone
Hardwood (or synthetic) bars with plastic mallets
Dry, sharp tone
Marimba
Wooden (or synthetic) slats with yarn (or rubber) mallets
Tubular resonators give it a mellow sound

37. Pitched Percussion Vibraphone Celesta Tubular bells (Chimes)
Metal plates with rubber (or yarn) mallets
Tubular resonators give it a mellow sound
Sustain pedal and “vibrato” device
Celesta
Bars like a glockenspiel, but played from a small keyboard; sounds like a music box
Tubular bells (Chimes)
Hollow hanging metal tubes struck with rolled horsehide mallet; sound like church bells

38. Unpitched Percussion
Refers to any percussion instrument used to add a specific color, not to play a melody or bass line
Includes drums: instruments with membranes (drumheads) stretched over one or both ends of a hollow, cylindrical frame
Also includes various instruments made of solid or hollow metal or wood objects in a variety of different shapes

39. Unpitched Percussion Cymbals Triangle Tam-tam
Concave metal plates come in many sizes
One can be suspended and played with mallets
Pairs can be clapped together: a cymbal crash
Triangle
A rolled metal bar bent into a triangle shape
Struck with a metal beater
Tam-tam
A large, round, flat metal plate
Struck with a large lambs-wool beater

40. Unpitched Percussion Snare drum
A smaller double-headed drum with a metal or wooden frame
Usually played with wooden snare drum sticks (metal brushes used for special effect)
High-tension heads give the snare drum a sharp, dry sound
Snares (tightly wrapped metal coils held against the bottom head of the drum) give the sound a sharp, metallic edge

41. Unpitched Percussion Tenor drum Bass drum
A larger, double-headed drum with wooden frame, played with snare sticks
Lower tension and larger size gives the tenor drum a deeper, rounder sound than the snare drum
Bass drum
A very large, double-headed drum with wooden frame, played with large felt beater
Low tension and large size give the bass drum a deep, rumbling sound

42. Orchestra
Modern orchestra began to take shape in the 1600s (Baroque era)
Basic format standardized by late 1700s (Classical era)
Four instrument families in today’s symphony orchestra
Strings
Woodwinds
Brass
Percussion

43. Orchestra
Strings
30-36 violins (divided into 1st and 2nd violin sections)
12 violas
10-12 cellos
8 double basses
The heart of the orchestra, they often play continuously

44. Orchestra Woodwinds Used a bit less than strings, often to add color
2 flutes and piccolo
2 clarinets and bass clarinet
2 oboes and English horn
2 bassoons and contrabassoon
Used a bit less than strings, often to add color

45. Orchestra
Brass
2-3 trumpets
4 French horns
2-3 trombones and bass trombone
1 tuba
Used less then strings or woodwinds, often to add power

46. Orchestra
Percussion
1 to 4 players
Percussionists play whatever instruments the score calls for, most often timpani
Used less than strings, woodwinds, or brass, often for color or power

47. Orchestra

48. Keyboard Instruments
Sound producing mechanism controlled from a keyboard
Anywhere from 13 to 90+ keys
Some have two or more keyboards
Performers usually sit on a bench or stool to play traditional keyboard instruments; often stand to play modern keyboards
Various means of producing sounds

49. Piano
Invented early 1700s
Keys activate hammers which strike piano strings—a percussion instrument!
Requires great artistry to make it “sing”
Originally called pianoforte (soft-loud)
Player could change dynamics by pressing keys harder or softer
Standard piano has 88 keys
Foot pedals used for special effects
Sustain, “soft” pedal, sostenuto

50. Early Keyboard Instruments
Harpsichord
May have one or more keyboards
Keys activate quills that pluck the strings—a plucked stringed instrument!
Cannot change dynamics by pressing keys harder or softer
Many have two complete sets of strings, one louder, one softer
Players use “stops” or switch keyboards to play louder or softer
Short sustain gives it a staccato feel

51. Early Keyboard Instruments
Clavichord
Keys activate “tangents” that press against strings
Since tangent stays in contact with string until key is released, player can bend the pitch by pressing harder or softer
Since pressing harder or softer changes pitch as well as dynamics, only subtle dynamic changes are practical
Delicate, subtle, expressive sound

52. Pipe Organ Most have two or more keyboards and a pedal board
Keys activate mechanism that releases air into organ pipes—a woodwind instrument!
Each “stop” brings another set of pipes (rank) into play…and another tone color!
Organists obtain thousands of colors (and change dynamics) by mixing stops in different ways

53. Electronic Keyboards Wide range of instruments available
At bottom end, keys with a few “cheesy” sounds
At top end, sophisticated MIDI synthesizers with keys
Keys serve as triggers that activate electronically-generated sounds
Many have MIDI capability, a protocol that allows keyboard and computer to communicate

54. Electronic Keyboards Some important electronic keyboards
Electronic organs
Popular from 1930s on, used in jazz and rock
Electric piano
Fender Rhodes popular in early jazz fusion
Electronic keyboard
Provides pre-programmed sounds: piano, harpsichord, organ, etc.
Synthesizer

55. Electronic Keyboards Synthesizer
Invented in the 1950s, but not commercially viable until the 1960s
Includes pre-programmed sounds
Allows user to create and edit new electronic sounds from scratch
Standard instrument for electronic music studios, recording studios, and so on
Used in classical music since the 1950s
Used in jazz and rock since the late 1960s

56. Plucked Strings
Player uses right hand to pluck strings with fingers, fingernails, or “pick”
The string’s vibration is carried via the bridge to the instrument’s body
The hollow body amplifies the sound
The left hand “stops” the string at different frets, changing length of vibrating string
Longer string = lower pitch
Shorter string = higher pitch

57. Plucked Strings
Different “picking” patterns and styles create different tone colors, dynamics, and articulations
Player can play a melody on one string at a time, or play chords on two or more strings simultaneously

58. Plucked Stringed Instruments
Acoustic Guitar
Can sound gentle and delicate or sharp and percussive
Six strings tuned in fourths (and a third)
Strings made of nylon (classical guitar) or steel (folk guitar)
Classical guitar held across lap; player sits
Player uses a shoulder strap to hold a folk guitar; player can stand or sit
Used for centuries in classical, popular, and folk music

59. Plucked Stringed Instruments
Other acoustic instruments
Mandolin
Small, pear-shaped with 4 strings & frets
Lute
Pear-shaped with 6 to 11 strings & frets
Archlute
Enhanced lute with extra bass strings
Theorbo
Large bass lute with extra bass strings

60. Plucked Stringed Instruments
Electric guitar
Can sound gentle and delicate or ear-splittingly loud, searing, and virtuosic
Usually tuned same as acoustic guitar
Strings made of steel
Vibrating strings picked up by transducers, resulting electronic impulses run through amplifiers
Held with a shoulder strap
Used primarily in rock and jazz