1. Behind the welter of names – positivism, naturalism, post-positivism, relativism, feminist standpoint epistemology, foundationalism, postmodernism, each with an array of sub-species – lie important questions: Is there a single, absolute truth about educational phenomena, or are there multiple truths? (Or is the concept of truth itself so problematic as to be of no value in understanding the world?) Can we count on our senses or on reason, to distinguish that which is true about the world from that which is false? Are there methods that can lead us close to understanding, or are there inherent indeterminancies in all methods? (Pallas, 2003, p.6)

2. The Epistemological Tradition of Positivism and Post-Positivism: Externalist and Objective – properties of the environment are the important determinants of knowledge properties of the environment are the important determinants of knowledge

3. Until now one assumed that all cognition had to conform to objects…henceforth one might try to find out whether we do not get further…if we assume that the objects have to conform to our cognition. Immanuel Kant quoted in Glasersfeld (1995), emphasis added

4. Mathematical analysis itself may betray us into substituting signs for ideas. Compte (1896) Considered the father of positivism

5. Only statements of mathematics and empirical science have sense. All other statements are without sense. Carnap 1935/1966, p. 218 Logical Positivist/Vienna Circle

6. What does the fish DO? Describe the behavior that is observed.

7. General Principles of Positivism: linked closely to empirical science linked closely to empirical science leads to progress – scientific discovery is the instrument and driving force of progress leads to progress – scientific discovery is the instrument and driving force of progress scientific knowledge is both accurate and certain scientific knowledge is both accurate and certain science discovers meanings while subjective knowledge ascribe meanings science discovers meanings while subjective knowledge ascribe meanings Objects have meanings prior to, and independently of, consciousness of them Objects have meanings prior to, and independently of, consciousness of them objective, verifiable knowledge must be separated from subjective, unverifiable knowledge objective, verifiable knowledge must be separated from subjective, unverifiable knowledge the world studied by the positivist scientist is an abstraction of the world we live in. the world studied by the positivist scientist is an abstraction of the world we live in.

8. Every scientific statement must remain tentative for ever. Karl Popper (1959, p.280), emphasis in original

9. There is not a single idea, no matter how absurd and repulsive, that has not a sensible aspect, and there is not a single view, no matter how plausible and humanitarian, that does not encourage and thus conceal our stupidity and our criminal tendencies. Feyerabend, the enfant terrible

10. What is the fish DOING?

11. Assumptions of Post - Positivism Absolute truth can never be found. Absolute truth can never be found. Research is a process of making claims and then testing, refining or abandoning some of them for other claims more strongly warranted. Research is a process of making claims and then testing, refining or abandoning some of them for other claims more strongly warranted. Data, evidence and rational considerations shape knowledge. Data, evidence and rational considerations shape knowledge. Research seeks to develop relevant, true statements that can serve to explain the situation that is of concern or that describes the causal relationship of interest. Research seeks to develop relevant, true statements that can serve to explain the situation that is of concern or that describes the causal relationship of interest. Researchers must examine their methods and conclusions and control or limit bias. Researchers must examine their methods and conclusions and control or limit bias.

12. Positivism & Post-Positivisim are NOT: Behaviorism Behaviorism Empiricism Empiricism

13. People do not create society. For it always pre-exists them and is a necessary condition for their activity. Rather, society must be regarded as an ensemble of structures, practices and conventions which individuals reproduce or transform, but which would not exist unless they did so. Society does not exist independently of human activity (the error of reification). But it is not the product of it (the error of voluntarism). Roy Bhaskar, 1998

15. Assumptions of Critical Realism Concerned with social rather than natural science Concerned with social rather than natural science All knowledge is fallible but not equally fallible All knowledge is fallible but not equally fallible Process of retroduction or abstraction Process of retroduction or abstraction Assumes vertical structure of reality Assumes vertical structure of reality Assumes horizontal structure of reality Assumes horizontal structure of reality